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V 



WORKS OF H. G. RICHEY 

PUBLISHED BY 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 
43-45 EAST 19th STREET, NEW YORK 



A Handbook for Superintendents of Construction, 
Architects, Builders, and Building Inspectors. 

i6mo v + 742 pages, 357 figures. Morocco, $4.00. 

The Building Mechanics' Ready Reference. 

Carpenters and Woodworkers' Edition. 

i6mo, vi + 226 pages, 118 figures. Morocco, $1.50, net. 
Stone and Brick Masons' Edition. 

16m o. v+251 pages, 232 figs. Morocco, $1.50, net. 
Cement Workers and Plasterers' Edition. i6mo, 

vi +45S pages, 193 figures. Morocco, $1.50, net. 
Plumbers. Steam-fitters, and Tinners' Edition. 

i6mo, vi + 529 pages, 201 figures. Morocco, $1.50, 

net. 

IN PRE PAR A TION 

The Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready 
Reference. 



Published by W. T. COMSTOCK 

23 WARREN STREET, - NEW YORK 

Richey's Guide and Assistant for Carpenters and 
Mechanics. 

177 pages, 201 figures. Cloth ; $2.00. 



THE BUILDING MECHANICS' 
READY REFERENCE 

PLUMBERS' STEAM-FITTERS' AND 
TINNERS' EDITION 



BY 

H. G. RICHEY 

SUPERINTENDENT OF CONSTRUCTION U.S. PUBLIC BUILDINGS 



FIRST EDITION 

FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1908 



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U8«ARYafC0No*cSS* 

AUG 15 yub j 

foL (6 (fag 
OLA**/ A .,., , 

COW B. 



Copyright, 1908, 
H. G. EICHEY 






Stanbope iPress 

F- H. GILSON COMPANY 
BOSTON. U.S.A. 



PREFACE 



In preparing this volume of "The Building Mechanics' Ready 
Reference," it is not intended by the author to make the book 
a treatise or text-book on any particular branch or subject of 
the trades covered; but he will endeavor to give to the Plumbing 
and Steam-fitting trades a book that will be as its title implies, — 
a ready reference. 

It is intended to prepare the book so that it will be a valuable 
assistant as a reference to anyone connected with the plumbing 
or steam fitting trades, either in the office or on the work. 

In addition to the original matter presented, the author has 
compiled and brought together a large amount of useful infor- 
mation and arranged it in such shape that any subject or any 
information desired can readily be referred to, and in doing this 
he has been rendered great assistance through the kindness of 
numerous manufacturers, and the editors of various trade 
papers. 

In this one, as in the preceding volumes of "The Ruilding 
Mechanics' Ready Reference," a large amount of information 
has been arranged in tabular form so as to be more convenient 
for quick reference and use. 

The author will be pleased to hear from any reader regarding 
any error, typographical or otherwise, found in this work, or 
any idea or suggestion that may be useful in a future edition; 
address the author, care of the publishers. 

H. G. Richey. 



iii 



CONTENTS 



PART I. Page 

Warm Air Heating * 

Steam Heating 13 

Hot Water Heating 20 

Miscellaneous Heating Data 24 

Piping of Heating Systems 63 

Pipe Fittings 72 

PART II 

Data on Boilers ? 9 

Miscellaneous Information for Plumbers and Steam 

Fitters 92 

Tables of Radiation 122 

Various Computation Tables 138 

Tables of Sizes, Strengths, etc 165 

Tables of Weights, etc ■ ■ 191 

PART III 

Hydraulics 216 

Data on Water 242 

Sewers, etc 250 

Excavation Tables 261 

Tin and Sheet Metal Work 268 

Sizes, Weights, etc., of Sheet Metal 284 

PART IV 

Gas Piping, etc 303 

Rules for Gas Fitting 324 

Soil and Vent Pipes 336 

Names, Sizes, etc., of Soil Pipe Fittings ...... 344 

Various Methods and Short Cuts for Plumbers . . 361 

Rules for Plumbing 389 

v 



VI CONTENTS 



PART V 

Page 

Some Examples op Modern Plumbing 399 

Modern Specifications 428 

Miscellaneous Receipts 451 

Mensuration and Mensuration Tables 475 

Odds and Ends for the Noon Hour 499 

Wage Tables 505 



PAET I. 

WARM AIR HEATING. STEAM HEATING. 
HOT WATER HEATING. MISCELLANE- 
OUS HEATING DATA. PIPING OF HEAT- 
ING SYSTEMS. PIPE FITTINGS. 



WARM AIR HEATING. 

Location of the Furnace. — The proper location of the 
furnace, as well as the size and arrangement of the hot air pipes, 
is one of the most important points to be considered for its 
successful operation. 

The position of the furnace should be as central as possible 
as regards the runs of conducting pipe and the register outlets, 
so that the pipes will all be of nearly equal length, and no pipe 
will have an advantage over another. If one side of the building 
is more exposed to the weather than another, it should be 
favored; the reason for this is that warm air, being a vapor, is 
affected by the winds, and when the wind is blowing strong the 
tendency is for the rooms on the side of the house from the wind 
to be overheated, while those rooms receiving the blunt of the 
wind will be poorly heated. 

Therefore, to counteract this tendency the furnace should be 
located a little nearer to the side of the house mostly exposed to 
the weather, and thus shorten the runs of conducting hot air 
pipes on that side. Or in case there are one or more rooms in 
the house which it is desired to heat to a higher temperature 
than the others they can be favored in the same way by locating 
the furnace a little nearer the registers of these rooms than the 
others. 

Foundation of Furnace. — The furnace, whether portable 
or encased with brick, should rest on a solid brick or concrete 

1 



2 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

foundation, the plan of which will have to be governed by the 
style and make of the furnace, and the method adapted of 
supplying the cold air. 

In case an underground duct is used for the supply of cold air 
then there must be a pit for the furnace as well as foundation, 
this pit being built in and forming a part of the foundation. 

If there is any danger of dampness or water especial care 




Fig. 1. Foundation for Warm Air Furnace. 



should be taken to make the pit water-tight, and it should be 
plastered thoroughly both inside and outside with cement. 

In the center it is well to build up a pier to carry the central 
weight of the furnace, the framework of some furnaces not being 
strong enough to support the weight they have to carry without 
this pier. 

Often it is necessary to build a pit even when there is no under- 
ground air duct; the furnace should be set low enough so that 
there will be a rise of not less than 1 in 10 to the warm air pipes, 



WARM AIR HEATING 3 

and if possible there should be more, as the more rise the faster 
the warm air will be supplied to the rooms; thus a pit is often 
necessary in low basements or cellars. 

Fig. 1 shows a foundation and pit for a warm air furnace; the 
cold air duct as shown is connected either to the underground 
duct or to the overhead duct as the case may be. 

The Cold Air Duct. — Having decided on the point from 
which the supply of fresh air is to be taken, and which should 
be as near to the furnace as possible, the next problem is to 




Fig. 2. Underground Cold Air Duct. 



decide the size and character of the duct to convey the air from 
the outside of the building to the furnace. 

As the air to supply all the registers of the building is to come 
through this duct it would seem that it should be of a capacity 
equal to the total area of all the warm air pipes; this, however, 
is not the case, as the air on entering the furnace expands and on 
rising through the pipes causes a vacuum which the air from the 
outside duct fills. 

The warm air in rising also usually has more angles and 
obstacles to overcome than that of the air duct, and the air in 
passing through this duct can pass more rapidly than that which 
is passing through the warm air pipes. Thus it is safe to esti- 
mate that a cold air duct of two-thirds the capacity of all the 



4 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

warm air pipes will be sufficient to supply all the fresh air needed; 
hence we can deduct the following rule : — To find the size of 
cold air duct required, add together the areas of all the warm air 
pipes to be supplied, and two-thirds of this sum will be the area 
required for the duct. For the areas of various size pipes see 
the table on page 151. 

The circumstances of the case will usually govern the character 
of construction of the air duct. A duct made of tile as shown by 




Fig. 3. Overhead Cold Air Duct. 



Fig. 2 is often used, as it is simple and easy to construct for an 
underground duct. The duct should never be put underground 
if there is any sign of water or dampness ; in such cases it should 
be brought in overhead and down to the furnace as shown by 
Fig. 3. 

If the duct is taken from a sash or window opening and made 
of tin or sheet iron, it is a good plan to make a flanged box or 
inlet to fit the sash or opening, and start the duct from this box 
which should extend a foot or more from the opening. 

If the duct is made of wood, it should be of matched boards and 
made of two thicknesses with a layer of asbestos paper between, 
so as to make the duct as near air-tight as possible. 

In many cases it is desirable to return air to the furnace from 
the rooms above, to be reheated and returned to the rooms again 
as warm air; these return ducts should always be installed where 
the winter temperature falls below zero, and should always be 



WARM AIR HEATING 



installed in addition to and in connection with the cold air duct 
from the outside. 

The return duct may be built of wood, iron or tin, and can be 
run in connection with the fresh air duct from the outside. 

The return duct should draw its supply of air from the coldest 
part of the house, as a hall or vestibule. 

The area of the return duct should be about two-thirds that 
of the fresh air duct, and the two ducts should be arranged with 
dampers so that either can be used independent of the other, or 
they can both be used at the same time. 

Fig. 4 shows how the cold air duct can be taken from a window 
and also take air from the room above; the damper is put in as 
shown and will shut off either source of supply or will allow 
both to be used at the same time. 

Fresh Air Regulating Duct. — Fig. 5 shows the construc- 
tion of a cold air duct to a 
furnace which is so arranged 
that the one duct will carry 
the fresh air from the outside 
and the return cold air from 
the heated rooms when 
desired. 

The duct is built as shown, 
with a swinging door inside ; 
a chain is run from the door 
through a pulley and a weight 
attached to keep the door in 
the position shown, thus 
allowing the fresh air from 

the outside to be admitted to the furnace; another chain is to 
be attached to the other side of the door, run through a pulley 
and then up through the floor, where it is to be adjusted by 
means of a hook on the baseboard of the room. 

When it is desired to shut off the outside supply of fresh air 
all that is necessary is to pull the chain and fasten the door in 
the position shown by the dotted lines; the air then to supply 
the furnace is taken from the rooms above and returned to the 
furnace to be warmed and circulated to the rooms again. By 
adjusting the door in the duct, air can be taken from the outside 
and from the rooms above at the same time. 

Cold air ducts are often placed in such a location that the 




Fig. 4. Cold Air Inlet. 



6 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

wind from certain directions will enter the duct and circulate 
through the furnace so rapidly that it is not warmed, but enters 
the rooms cold. 



Cord to fasten to hook on base 




Fig. 5. Cold Air and Return Duct. 

To prevent this a swinging damper should be put in the duct 
as shown by Fig. 6. A strong current of air or gust of wind will 




Swinging Damper 
Cold Air Supply 



t 



i§ggggi 



Fig. 6. Cold Air Regulator. 




Fig. 7. Baffle Plates. 



cause the damper to close, thus shutting off a too rapid supply 
of cold air. 

The entrance to the cold air duct should always be covered 



WARM AIR HEATING 7 

with a wire screen to prevent vermin, leaves, etc., from entering 
the duct. 

In some localities where there is much dust and sand, much of 
it may be drawn into the duct and find its way up into the 
house. To prevent this a series of baffle plates can be built in 
the air duct as shown by Fig. 7, so that the air will be sifted 
before it passes into the furnace. These baffles should be made 
of coarse cheese-cloth and cover about two-thirds of the duct 
as shown. 

The frames of the baffles as A-I are made to slide into grooves 
so they can be withdrawn at any time and the dust which they 
have gathered brushed off. This arrangement keeps the air 
clean and fresh. 

Pipes and Registers. — In house heating, the size of the warm 
air pipe to use for any room depends upon conditions; that is, 
the construction of the building, exposure, wall and glass surface, 
length of the warm air pipes, elevation of the same, etc.; under 
ordinary conditions, however, one square inch of pipe area will 
heat twenty-five cubic feet in a first floor living room, thirty cubic 
feet in a second floor sleeping room and fifteen cubic feet in a 
bath room, if but one side of the room is exposed. Roughly 
estimating this will give the following table: 

Use pipe 8 inches in diameter for rooms containing 1,000 cubic 
feet. 

Use pipe 9 inches in diameter for rooms containing 1,500 cubic 
feet. 

Use pipe 10 inches in diameter for rooms containing 2,000 cubic 
feet. 

Use pipe 12 inches in diameter for rooms containing 3,000 cubic 
feet. 

Use pipe 14 inches in diameter for rooms containing 4,000 cubic 
feet. 

Use pipe 16 inches in diameter for rooms containing 5,000 cubic 
feet. 

For the second floor rooms use one size smaller pipe than for 
the first floor rooms, as sleeping rooms are not heated to as high 
a temperature as living rooms. For rooms with two exposed 
sides use pipe one size larger, also when pipes are unusually long 
with many bends use one size larger than given in the table. For 
the heating capacity of pipes see table on page 151. 

All warm air pipes should have a damper near the furnace to 



s 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



regulate the supply of warm air or to shut it off when not in 
use. 

In running the conducting pipes from the furnace give them 
as much of an angle of elevation as possible, as the only power 
that moves the warm air through the pipes is its tendency to 




Riser Shoe Angle Inlet. 



rise, hence the greater elevation to the pipes, the greater the 
velocity of the air. 

The pipes should be run as direct as possible and with few 
bends and no square turns. The bottom of each riser should 
be provided with a shoe to connect to the heater pipe. In no 
case should the riser pipe be extended down and a bottom put 
on and the heater pipe connected by means of a collar on the 
side of the riser. This is often done but is very poor practice, 
for the sharp turn will always retard the flow of air. 

Shoes should always be provided as shown by Figs. 8 and 9. 

Fig. 10 shows a shoe that is both efficient and inexpensive; it 
was originally designed by C. De Witt Wagner, Cedar Rapids, 
la. A general view is shown at 1, while 2 and 3 are side eleva- 
tions, 3 having the inlet at an angle ; 4 and 5 are end elevations, 



WARM AIR HEATING 



9 



4 haying the outlet over the center of the shoe, and 5 having 
the outlet at the side; 6 shows the pattern or layout for the 
main part of the shoe. 

It will be seen that a shoe of this type presents very little 
friction to the air passing from a round horizontal pipe into a 
vertical rectangular one. 

When one riser supplies two registers as shown by Figs. 11 and 
12, there should be a partition in the Tee or pipe as shown at A 




Fig. 9. Riser Shoe Square Inlet. 

to divide the air supply, otherwise one register may get more 
than its share of the warm air, or if in the case of two registers, 
as shown by Fig. 12, both are open at the same time, there is 
danger of a circulation from the one room to the other and one 
room will get all the heat. 

Registers are now manufactured with an adjustable damper 
as shown by Fig. 13. These are excellent for use where one riser 
supplies several outlets. As shown the damper opens inward and 
cuts out any desired supply of the warm air. 



10 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Great care should be used to see that all the warm air pipes 
are put in at the proper location and the openings put in at the 
proper height. When the opening for a wall register is at the 
bottom it should be just above the base of the room, unless a 
special make of register is used when it may be set down to the 
floor line. 

In some cases the warm air supply is brought into the room 




Fig. 10. The Wagner Riser Shoe. 



near the ceiling, and in such cases the register openings should 
be placed about a foot below the ceiling. 

The warm air or register opening being placed at different 
heights according to the system of heating employed, the heights 
should always be marked or indicated on the drawings. 




uy 



Fig. 11. Partition in Stack Supplying Two Registers. 




Fig. 12. Partition in Stack Supplying Two Registers. 



12 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



When air ducts or large rectangular register pipes are used 

they should be reinforced to prevent them from collapsing, by- 
having ribs of metal, as 
shown by Fig. 14, riveted 
across them about every 
two feet, or have braces 
riveted in them as shown 
by Fig. 15. 

All pipes for conduct- 
ing warm air should be 
made of bright tin plate, 
and where they are en- 
closed in walls they 
should be double, with 
an air space between, to 
insure from fire, and also 
prevent the heat from 
escaping. 

All the exposed warm 
air pipes should be cov- 
ered with asbestos or 
wrapped with asbestos 
paper at least one-half 
inch in thickness. The 
common method of 

wrapping the pipes with a sheet of thin asbestos paper is useless 

as there is not body enough to the asbestos to do any good 

as a non-conductor. 
Flues. — A 

faulty chimney flue 

is very often the 

cause of much 

trouble and annoyance 




Fig. 13. Improved Register with Damper 




Pig. 14. Reinforcing Rib. 



Fig. 15. 



The flue for a furnace should not be 
less than 8 X 12, when soft coal 
or wood is used. The flue 
should be straight and be ex- 
tended two or three feet below 
the entrance of the smoke pipe, 
and have a cleanout door so 
that the falling soot can be 
Braces in Air Ducts. cleaned out at any time. 




STEAM HEATING 



13 



Another important feature is the height of the chimney. It 
should not be less than four feet above the highest part of the 
roof, and if surrounded by high buildings or trees it may be 
necessary to extend it still higher. 

STEAM HEATING. 

Steam Heating. — There are two systems of heating by 
steam, the high pressure and the low pressure systems. 

A steam heating system that is to work under a pressure of 
over 10 pounds is called a high pressure system, and one that is 




Fig. 16. One Pipe Single System. 

to work under a pressure of 10 pounds or less is called a low 
pressure system. 

There are two methods of piping for steam heating, known as 
The Single Pipe and The Double Pipe or Return Systems. 

In the one pipe single system, Fig. 16, the supply pipes are so 
graded that they carry back all condensation to the boiler direct. 

When the condensation is carried direct to the boiler by making 
a circuit of the building as shown by Fig. 17, it is known as the 
One Pipe Circuit System, but if the condensation is carried to 
a return main which is below the water line of the boiler as shown 
by Fig. 18, then it is known as The One Pipe Relief System. 

As the steam in the radiators gives off its heat it condenses, 
and in the form of water runs back through the risers and 
branches and returns to the boiler, its place being supplied with 



14 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



more steam forced into the radiators by the pressure at the 
boiler. 

The water of condensation on reaching the boiler is again 
converted into steam, and again starts on its journey through 
the pipes and radiators. 

The boiling-point of water is 212 degrees, but in order to force 
the steam through the radiators a higher temperature is required 
so as to produce a pressure in the boiler, a 10 pound pressure 




Fig. 17. One Pipe Circuit System. 



requiring a temperature of 240 degrees in the water and steam 
of the boiler. 

One Pipe Single System. — In this system, Fig. 16, the main 
and branches run from the boiler to the radiators giving the pipes 
as much pitch upward as possible, and the water of condensation 
is carried back through them to a point near the boiler where a 
relief pipe should be placed to carry the water to the return 
opening in the boiler. This system is adapted to small jobs 
only. 

One Pipe Circuit System. In the One Pipe Circuit System 
shown by Fig. 17, the steam main is taken from the top of the 



STEAM HEATING 



15 



boiler and run to or as near to the ceiling of the basement as 
possible, and then with considerable pitch downward (this pitch 
should not be less than \ inch in 10 feet) makes an entire circuit 




of the building, returning to and connecting with the boiler below 
the water line. 

Single branches and risers are taken from the top of the main 
and given a grade to bring back all condensation. 

The main in this system should be large and of the same size 



^3 



I 



%s=P 



Steam return 



Fig. 19. Seal and Dry Return. 

its entire length, and to give good results must have pitch enough 
to run all condensation back to the boiler. 

One Pipe Relief System. — In the One Pipe Relief System, 
as shown by Fig. 18, the radiators have but one connection, 



16 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



same as the One Pipe Circuit System, the supply of steam and 
the returning condensation both using the same pipe. 

In this system the main is installed as described for the Circuit 
System, but the branches and risers are drained into a return 
main which carries the condensation back to the boiler. When 
the return main is placed at the floor or below the water line of 
the boiler it is known as a Wet Return, but if placed overhead 
or above the water line of the boiler it is known as a Dry Return. 




Fig. 20. Two Pipe System of Steam Heating. 



Dry returns should be given a greater fall than the wet return, 
not less than 1 inch to every 10 feet. 

The ends of the supply mains and the bottom of all risers 
should be drained into the return main. If it is a wet return 
they can be connected direct, but if a dry return the risers should 
be connected with a syphon as shown by Fig. 19. This loop 
fills with water and forms a seal which prevents the steam from 
flowing direct into the return pipe. 

If the steam is allowed to flow direct into the overhead return 
pipe there is likely to be much "cracking" or "hammering" 



STEAM HEATING 



17 



when the steam comes in contact with the cold water, especially 
when heat is first turned on. 

Two Pipe System. — In the two pipe system of steam heating 
as shown by Fig. 20, the main risers are taken from the boiler 
■as previously described for the one pipe circuit system, but the 
supply of steam is carried through the radiators and returned 
through a separate line of pipe to the boiler. 

The main may be reduced in size as branches are taken off, 
not, however, in proportion to their areas, but very much slower, 



^ 



Boiler 






Fig. 21. False Water Line in Return. 

and should pass beyond the last branch a foot or more before 
dropping to the return. 

The return starting beyond the last branch should drop below 
the water line of the boiler and then pitch toward the boiler at 
least 1 inch in 10 feet ; this return should be increased in size as 
connections are made to it, keeping it about one size less than 
the steam supply main. . 

In case the boiler sets in a pit or too low to get the return 
below the water line of the boiler, a false water line can be estab- 
lished as shown by Fig. 21. As will be seen the return main has 
to fill with water to the point A before it can pass over the loop 
to the boiler. 



18 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The Vacuum System of Steam Heating. — In this system a 
mechanical apparatus or set of valves are used to keep the air 
expelled from the system, and as the steam cools or condenses 
in the radiators a vacuum is created which causes a suction which 
will draw live steam from the boiler. The following description 
or explanation of a vacuum system is given by the Norwall Mfg. 
Co., manufacturers of automatic air valves. 

The term "Vacuum" signifies empty space or space void of 
matter. In practical use it refers to an enclosed space from 
which the air or other gas has been almost entirely removed. 
The removal or exhaustion of the air from an enclosed space can 
be accomplished either by means of a pump, or by condensation 
of steam. In the Vacuum System of Steam Heating it is con- 
densation of steam that causes the vacuum. Steam is water in 
a gaseous state occupying a space about seventeen hundred 
times as great as the water from which it originates, or, in other 
words, a cubic inch of water when converted into steam, if uncon- 
fined, occupies a space equal to about seventeen hundred cubic 
inches, or about one cubic foot. When the conversion of water 
into steam takes place within an enclosed space, for instance, a 
steam heating apparatus (meaning by the term "apparatus" the 
boiler, connecting pipes, radiators, etc.), if the different parts 
of the apparatus are properly proportioned, the steam would 
fill the space in the apparatus not occupied by water were it not 
for the fact that this apparently unoccupied space is in reality 
fully occupied by air. When steam is heated above 212° Fahr. 
within an enclosed space, its expansion is about five times 
as great as air under similar conditions. Knowing this, it is 
apparent that air, even though heated to an equal temperature, 
is a much denser and heavier gas than steam, but when steam 
is generated in a steam heating apparatus, when the radiators, 
etc., are cold, the apparatus is full of cold air, and therefore the 
density of the air is much greater than if it were hot. The two 
gases, i.e., steam and air, being of different density, will not mix, 
and the result is when steam is generated there is simply a push- 
ing or a compressing of the air in the pipes and radiators, as the 
steam pressure increases. In order to allow the steam to circulate 
into and through the pipe and radiators, it is therefore absolutely 
necessary to provide an outlet for the air, or what is commonly 
called an air valve or vent on each and every radiator or heating 
coil connected with the boiler. When the air has been entirely 



STEAM HEATING 19 

expelled from the apparatus by the pressure of steam the appara- 
tus may be said to be full of steam. Since steam occupies a 
space about seventeen hundred times greater than the water from 
which it originates, it follows as a natural sequence that the 
water from which the steam originated occupies a space seven- 
teen hundred times less than the steam; hence, when the steam 
is again condensed to water the space occupied by the steam 
will be left a void or vacuum, provided the air is prevented from 
returning into the system. If the condensation of steam to 
water were instantaneous, there would be little to recommend 
the vacuum system of steam heating, but the fact is that the 
condensation is gradual and can be checked and held at any 
point desired between atmosphere pressure and absolute vacuum, 
by simply increasing the strength of the fire. 

While the fact is not generally known, it is a fact nevertheless 
that water will boil and generate steam in absolute vacuum at 
a temperature of 98° Fahr. At the sea level the atmosphere 
exerts a pressure of 14.7 lbs. per sq. in., and water boils and 
generates steam under this pressure at 212° Fahr. As vacuum 
increases the weight of the atmosphere decreases at the rate of 
about one pound for every two inches increase in vacuum, and 
because of this decrease in the weight or pressure of the 
atmosphere, water boils and generates steam at a lower and 
lower temperature until absolute vacuum and a boiling tempera- 
ture of 98 degrees is reached, which is the lowest temperature at 
which water can be made to boil and generate steam. 

The measure of vacuum is in inches, and if accuracy is desired 
a mercury gauge is used. A common form of this gauge consists 
of an inverted graduated syphon of glass, like the letter "U," 
open at one end to the atmosphere and the other end connected 
with the apparatus to be tested, and containing a quantity of 
mercury. When not in use, the mercury rises equally in both 
legs of this syphon. On connecting the instrument with a 
vacuum the mercury rises in the leg connected with the appara- 
tus and falls in the other leg, the difference in inches between 
them being the measure of vacuum. With absolute vacuum, 
the difference between the two columns is 28.92 inches with a 
boiling temperature of 98 degrees, while "O" represents pressure 
in apparatus equal to atmosphere, and a boiling temperature of 
212 degrees. The different points between these two extremes 
indicate the various degrees of vacuum and the boiling tempera- 



20 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



tures of water, and the boiling temperature of water at the 
various degrees is shown in the following tabje: 



Inches of 


Temperature at 


Inches of 


Temperature at 


Vacuum. 


which Water 


Vacuum. 


which Water 




Boils. 




Boils. 




Degrees. 




Degrees. 





212 


16 


175.8 


1 


210.3 


17 


172.6 


2 


208.5 


18 


169 


3 


206.8 


19 


165.3 


4 


204.8 


20 


161.2 


5 


202.9 


21 


156.7 


6 


200.9 


22 


151.9 


7 


199 


23 


146.5 


8 


196.7 


24 


140.3 


9 


194.5 


25 


133.3 


10 


192.2 


26 


124.9 


11 


189.7 


27 


114.4 


12 


187.3 


28 


108.4 


13 


184.6 


29 


102 


14 


181.3 


29.92 


98 


15 


178.9 







HOT WATER HEATING. 

Hot Water Heating. — The hot water system has pipes and 
radiators similar to the steam heating system, but instead of 
using the steam from the hot water, the water itself is used to 
fill the pipes and radiators to a point in the expansion tank 
higher than the highest radiator. 

The circulation of the water to the radiators and back to the 
boiler is caused by the difference in weight between cold and 
hot water. 

When the water is heated it expands, and as it increases in 
bulk but not in weight it becomes relatively lighter than the cold 
water in the return pipes and hence rises to the highest point in 
the system. 

As the water cools it becomes heavier and falls back through 
the return pipes to the boiler, to be reheated and returned to 
the radiators. 

This action of the hot water ascending and the cold water 
descending is what makes the circulation in a hot water system, 
and this action will continue as long as the water in the boiler 
is hotter than that in the return pipes. 

Direct Hot Water Heating. — Fig. 22 illustrates a system 
of hot water heating. In this system the water flows from the 



HOT WATER HEATING 



21 



boiler through the supply pipes, passes through the radiators 
and ,is returned to the boiler through the return pipes as in- 
dicated. 

The water is continually in circulation caused by the water 
in the supply pipes being hotter than that in the return. Thus 
the hot water rises and the cool water descends back through the 
return pipes to the boiler. 



Ifp" 




Fig. 22. Direct Hot Water Heating. 



In this system the main or mains rise from the boiler only 
sufficiently to permit the flow main to rise at least 1 inch in 10 
feet or more if possible to the last connection. The main can 
be reduced as branches are taken off. 

The return main should run practically parallel to the flow or 
supply main and should increase as connections are made to it. 
The mains at any point should have an area equal to the area of 
all branches or risers beyond that point. 

The expansion tank can be connected to the return at any 
point, or it may be connected to the boiler independently. 



22 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Overhead Feed System of Hot Water Heating. — In the 
overhead system of hot water heating as shown by Fig. 23, the 
flow or supply main is carried direct to the attic or to the highest 
point to be heated, at which point the expansion tank should be 
located, thence either in a circuit or by branches downward at 
least 1 inch in 10 feet to a point over the radiators, then down 
to the cellar, taking from the return riser connections to the top 
and bottom of the radiators as shown. 




Fig. 23. Overhead Feed System of Hot Water Heating. 

The main may be reduced as branches are taken off, but the 
return risers should be the same size from top to bottom. 

The expansion tank should have a safety valve set at about 
10 pounds. 

Indirect Steam or Hot Water Heating. — An indirect 
system of steam or hot water heating is one where the radiators 
are installed in a box or chamber in the basement of the building, 
and cold air from the outside is brought in and circulated around 
the radiators. This air becomes warm and ascends through the 



HOT WATER HEATING 



23 



warm air pipes to heat the house similarly to the furnace system, 
as shown by Fig. 24. 

All indirect heating should be in connection with some system 
of ventilation, and therefore a larger volume of air must be 
warmed than when using the direct radiation. When figuring 




indirect radiation surface, due allowance must be made for this 
excess of air and the same provided for by increasing the amount 
of radiating surface. 

In hot water indirect work it is not good policy to supply more 
than 100 feet of radiation from one connection. When require- 



24 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



ments are for larger stacks they should be divided into two or 
more according to their size. 

Direct - Indirect Heating. — This method of heating is 
shown by Fig. 25. The radiators are set as usual and a supply 
of air from the outside is obtained and circulated around and 
through the radiator as shown. This air becomes heated and 
circulates through the room giving a supply of fresh warm air. 
When this system is used there must be sufficient radiating 
surface to heat the extra supply of cold air being brought in as 
explained under indirect heating. 




Fig. 25. Direct-Indirect Heating. 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA. 



When the "roughing in" of a heating system is being done, 
all the radiator connections, and all Tee or branch outlets should 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 25 

be plugged or capped as soon as put in place to prevent any 
dirt from getting in the pipe and possibly damaging the valves. 

In running all pipes care must be taken to provide for expan- 
sion and contraction, and suitable provision made so there will 
be no danger of breaking a pipe or connection. 

After the piping is all in place it should be tested before 
being covered up; this should be done by filling the pipes full 
of water and applying pressure with a force-pump to 100 or 
150 pounds, then if possible a steam test should be made before 
covering the pipes. 

All hot-water or steam pipes should be kept clear of all 
woodwork or other combustible material by about 4 inches. 

Pressure of Systems. — The high-pressure system is applied 
with steam at any pressure over 10 pounds. 

The low-pressure system is operated with a pressure of from 
2 to 5 pounds. 

Location of Radiators. — Radiators should always be placed 
at outside walls, and near or under the window, so as to counter- 
act the entrance of the cold air at the window. This will give 
a more even temperature in the room than if the radiator were 
located at the other side of the room. 

In piping for a hot-water system all bends and angles should 
be made as easy as possible so as to prevent friction, 

DATA FOR HOT-WATER HEATING. 

Table of Ratios. 

~ ,,. One Square Foot of Radiating 

Dwellings. Surface will Heat 

Living-rooms, one side exposed 30 CUD1C feet - 

1 ' , two sides exposed ^° 

" , three sides exposed 28 

Sleeping-room From 30 to - 

Hall-room 

Bath-room " 20 " 30 



20 " 30 " " 



a a 



Public Buildings. 

School-rooms 30 ' 50 

Offices " 30" 50 " " 

Factories " 50 " 70 " " 

Stores " 60" 70 " « 

Auditoriums " 80'MOO " " 

Churches " 80- 100 " « 



26 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

DATA FOR STEAM HEATING. 

TABLE OF RATIOS. 

Dwellings. One Square Foot of Radiating 

Surface will Heat 

Living-rooms, one side exposed From 45 to 50 cubic feet. 

" two sides exposed " 45 to 45 " " 

" three sides exposed ... . " 35 to 45 " " 

Sleeping-rooms " 50 to ' 70 " 

Halls and bathrooms " 40 to 50 " "■ 

Public Buildings. 

School-rooms " 60 to 80 " " 

Offices " 50 to 75 " 

Factories and stores " 70 to 100 " " 

Auditoriums and churches. " 80 to 100 " " 



The above ratios are for direct heating and an average tem- 
perature of 168° F. in the water. 

Hot Water. — For direct-indirect radiation add 33^ per cent, 
and for indirect radiation add 75 per cent, to the amount of 
direct surface required in the above table. 

Steam. — For direct-indirect radiation add 25 per cent, and 
for indirect radiation add 50 per cent, to the amount of direct 
surface required in the above tables. 

Due care must be exercised to provide for any special condi- 
tions, such as exposure of buildings, material of construction, 
location and length and size of mains governing plant under con- 
sideration. 

Allowances should also be made for loose construction of doors 
and windows, which admit large volumes of cold air, and pro- 
vide for outside doors which are used frequently and open 
directly into the room. 

In estimating the radiating surface, it should be borne in mind 
that a large surface at a comparatively low temperature gives 
a much pleasanter atmosphere than a small surface at a high 
temperature. 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



27 



APPROXIMATES. 

ADD 33J per cent to water rating for tank rating. 

DEDUCT 25 per cent from tank rating for water rating. 

ADD 65 per cent to steam rating for water rating. 

DEDUCT 40 per cent from water rating for steam rating. 

Under normal market conditions Hot Water Heating installa- 
tion costs about 30 per cent more than steam, but steam heating 
costs to operate about 20 per cent more than hot water. 

Under favorable conditions one square inch of grate is sufficient 
for one square foot of direct steam radiation in medium sized 
heaters, which radiation may be increased in larger and reduced 
in smaller heaters. 

Divide the area of the grate by 8 to 10 for area of flue. No 
flue should be less than 8 X 8 or 8 inches round. 

GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY HEATING. 

The following ratios of heating surface have been found to 
give good results in figuring the heating surface for greenhouses 
and conservatories. The ratios are to be used considering the 
outside temperature to be 0° F. 

PROPORTION OF GLASS TO HEATING SURFACE. 





Steam. 


Hot 
Water. 


For 45° inside temperature, 
surface by 


divide the total glass 


8 

7 

6.5 

6 

5 

4.5 


5 


For 50° inside temperature, 
surface by 


divide the total glass 


4.5 


For 55° inside temperature, 


divide the total glass 


4 


For 60° inside temperature, 


divide the total glass 


3.5 


For 65° inside temperature, 
surface by 


divide the total glass 


3.25 


For 70° inside temperature, 
surface by 


divide the total glass 


3 







BRANCHES WHICH A GIVEN MAIN WILL SUPPLY. 

The following table on page 28 gives the number of various 
size branches which a given main will supply, or the size of main 
to use for a number of different size branches. 

Example. — To find the branches which a 6" main will supply 
turn to the table and in the column of mains find 6", and follow- 
ing the lines under branches we find that a 6" main will supply 
either one 5" and one 4" branch or two 4" and one 3" or four 
3" or ten 2". 



28 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



APPROXIMATE NUMBER AND SIZE OF BRANCHES SUPPLIED 
FROM A GIVEN MAIN. 



Main. 


Branches. 




5" 


4" 


3i" 


3" 


2|" 


2" 


li" 


li" 


1" 




1 


1 
















6" 


or 


2 




1 














or 






4 
























10 












2 
















5" 


or 




2 






1 








or 






3 
























7 
















2 












4" 


or 




1 




1 












or 










4 
















1 




1 








w 


or 








2 












or 










3 


















1 


1 








3" 


or 










2 




1 






or 












4 


















1 


1 






2J" 


or 












3 








or 














4 




2" 












2 






or 












1 


2 




11" 
















2 




or 














1 


2 


li" 


















2 



Comparative Pipe Areas. — Doubling the diameter of a pipe 
increases its capacity four times. 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



29 



AREA OF DUCTS FOR INDIRECT HEATING. 

The common practice is to make the area of the cold-air duct 
in case of steam 1J inches for each square foot of surface in the 
radiator. For water, 1 inch. The warm-air flue areas for steam, 
2 inches for first floor; 1^ inches for second floor. For water, 
1§ inches for first floor; 1 inch for second floor. 

Heating by Pipe Coils. — To ascertain the lineal feet of pipe 
to use when heating by pipe coils, multiply the square feet of 
heating surface required as follows: 

For 1-inch pipe multiply heating surface by 3. 
For l|-inch pipe multiply heating surface by 2.3. 
For lj-inch pipe multiply heating surface by 2. 
For 2-inch pipe multiply heating surface by 1.6. 



PRESSURE OF WATER. 

The pressure of water per square inch is one pound for every 
28 inches in height of water column. 

PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH ON BOILER. 

To find the pressure on a hot water boiler, multiply height in 
feet of water line at the expansion tank above the boiler by .434 ° 
the result will be in pounds to the square inch. 

PRESSURE OF WATER FOR EACH FOOT IN HEIGHT. 



Feet in 
Height. 


Lbs. per 
Sq. In. 


Feet in 
Height. 


Lbs. per 
Sq. In. 


Feet in 
Height. 


Lbs. per 
Sq. In, 


1 

2 

5 

10 


.43 

.86 

2.16 

4.33 


15 
20 
25 
40 


6.49 

8.66 

10.82 

17.32 


50 

70 

80 

100 


21.65 
30.32 
34.65 
43.31 



APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF CUBIC FEET OF AIR ONE 
SQUARE FOOT OF RADIATION WILL HEAT. (Nason.) 



One Square Foot of Radiating 
Surface will Heat with 



Direct-steam radiation 

Indirect-steam radiation 

High temperature, direct hot- 
water radiation 

Low temperature, direct hot- 
water radiation 

High temperature, indirect hot 
water radiation 

Low temperature, indirect hot- 
water radiation 



In Dwellings, 
Schoolrooms, 

Offices, etc. 

Cubic Feet. 



60 to 80 
40 to 50 

50 to 70 

30 to 50 

30 to 60 

20 to 40 



In Halls, 

Stores, Lofts, 

Factories, etc. 

Cubic Feet. 



75 to 100 
50 to 70 

65 to 90 

35 to 65 

35 to 75 

25 to 50 



In Churches, 
Large Audi- 
toriums, etc. 
Cubic Feet. 



150 to 200 
100 to 140 

130 to 180 

70 to 130 

70 to 150 

50 to 100 



30 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The above proportions will give a temperature in the buildings 
described of 70° F., the thermometer being at zero in the outside 
atmosphere. 

While there is no iron-clad rule for computing the proper 
amount of radiation for heating buildings, owing to the 
variable conditions that enter into the calculation, the above 
table will prove valuable if allowances are made for extreme 
cases. 

It is well to remember that small rooms, rooms with large 
window surfaces or exposed sides, and rooms with exceptionally 
thick walls or fireproof tiling require more radiating surface in 
proportion to space than is ordinarily needed. Frame buildings 
require more radiation than stone, and stone more than 
brick. 

A good method for computing the amount of radiation required 
is the " 2-20-200 rule" as follows: — Allow 1 square foot of 
radiation for every 200 cubic feet of space in the room, 1 square 
foot of radiation for every 20 square feet of exposed wall surface 
and 1 square foot of radiation for every 2 square feet of glass in 
the walls of the room. 

This will give the required amount of steam radiation, which 
should be increased 60 per cent for hot water. 

The Plumbers Trade Journal, New York, in a serial by C. B. 
Thompson, recently gave the following rule and tables for com- 
puting radiation, and which is claimed will give a more even 
distribution of radiation than the 2-20-200 rule. 

Rule. — Divide the glass or window openings, including the 
sash, by 2, and the exposed wall, after the window openings 
have been deducted, by 10. This is for 70 degrees temperature 
difference only; that is, external zero, internal 70 degrees. 

The table on page 32 shows the quantity of steam radiation 
required to heat any given room, when the square feet of glass 
and square feet of exposed wall are known. Example: Suppose 
a given room contains 60 square feet of glass and 340 square feet 
of exposed wall ; that is, net wall after the window openings have 
been deducted. Look for 60 in the left-hand vertical column, and 
340 on the horizontal upper line, and where the two lines intersect 
read 64 square. 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



31 



SQUARE FEET OF RADIATING SURFACE OF PIPE PER 
LINEAL FOOT. 

On all lengths over one foot, fractions less than tenths are 
added to or dropped. 



£6 












Size of Pipe 












3 

4 


1 


H 


U 


2 


2* 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


1 


.275 


.346 


.434 


.494 


.622 


.753 


.916 


1.175 


1.455 


1.739 


1.996 


2.257 


2 


.5 


.7 


.9 


1. 


1.2 


1.5 


1.8 


2.4 


2.9 


3.5 


4. 


4.5 


3 


.8 


1. 


1.3 


1.5 


1.9 


2.3 


2.7 


3.5 


4.4 


5.2 


6. 


6.8 


4 


1.1 


1.4 


1.7 


2. 


2.5 


3. 


3.6 


4.7 


5.8 


7. 


8. 


9. 


5 


1.4 


1.7 


2.2 


2.4 


3.1 


3.8 


4.6 


5.8 


7.3 


7.7 


10. 


11.3 


6 


1.6 


2.1 


2.6 


2.9 


3.7 


4.5 


5.5 


7. 


8.7 


10.5 


12. 


13.5 


7 


1.9 


2.4 


3. 


3.4 


4.4 


5.3 


6.4 


8.2 


10.2 


12.1 


14. 


15.8 


8 


2.2 


2.8 


3.5 


3.9 


5. 


6. 


7.3 


9.4 


11.6 


13.9 


16. 


18. 


9 


2.5 


3.1 


3.9 


4.4 


5.6 


6.8 


8.2 


10.6 


13.1 


15.7 


18. 


20.3 


10 


2.7 


3.5 


4.3 


4.9 


6.2 


7.5 


9.1 


11.8 


14.6 


17.4 


20. 


22.6 


11 


3. 


3.8 


4.8 


5.4 


6.8 


8.3 


10. 


12.9 


16. 


19.1 


22. 


24.9 


12 


3.3 


4.1 


5.2 


5.9 


7.5 


9. 


11. 


14.1 


17.4 


20.9 


24. 


27.1 


13 


3.6 


4.5 


5.6 


6.4 


8.1 


9.8 


11.9 


15.3 


18.9 


22.6 


26. 


29.4 


14 


3.8 


4.8 


6.1 


6.9 


8.7 


10.5 


12.8 


16.5 


20.3 


24.3 


28. 


31.6 


15 


4.1 


5.2 


6.5 


7.4 


9.3 


11.3 


13.7 


17.6 


21.8 


26.1 


30. 


33.9 


16 


4.4 


5.5 


6.9 


7.9 


10. 


12. 


14.6 


18.8 


23.2 


27.8 


32. 


36.1 


17 


4.7 


5.9 


7.4 


8.4 


10.6 


12.8 


15.5 


20. 


24.7 


29.5 


34. 


38.4 


18 


5. 


6.2 


7.8 


8.9 


11.2 


13.5 


16.5 


21.2 


26.2 


31.3 


36. 


40.6 


19 


5.2 


6.6 


8.3 


9.4 


11.8 


14.3 


17.4 


22.3 


27.6 


33.1 


38. 


42.9 


20 


5.5 


6.9 


8.7 


9.9 


12.5 


15. 


18.3 


23.5 


29.1 


34.8 


40. 


45.2 


21 


5.8 


7.3 


9.1 


10.4 


13. 


15.8 


19.2 


24.7 


30.5 


36.5 


42. 


47.4 


22 


6. 


7.6 


9.6 


10.9 


13.7 


16.5 


20.2 


25.9 


32. 


38.3 


44. 


49.7 


23 


6.3 


8. 


10. 


11.3 


14.3 


17.3 


21.1 


27. 


33.5 


40. 


46. 


52. 


24 


6.6 


8.3 


10.4 


11.9 


14.9 


18. 


22. 


28.2 


34.9 


41.7 


48. 


54.2 


25 


6.9 


8.6 


10.9 


12.3 


15.6 


18.8 


22.9 


29.3 


36.3 


43.5 


50. 


56.4 


26 


7.1 


9. 


11.3 


12.8 


16.2 


19.5 


23.8 


30.5 


37.8 


45.2 


52. 


58.6 


27 


7.4 


9.4 


11.7 


13.3 


16.8 


20.3 


24.7 


31.7 


39.3 


47. 


54. 


61. 


28 


7.7 


9.7 


12.2 


13.8 


17.4 


21. 


25.6 


32.9 


40.7 


48.7 


56. 


63.2 


29 


8. 


10. 


12.6 


14.3 


18. 


21.8 


26.6 


34.1 


42.2 


50.4 


58. 


65.5 


30 


8.3 


10.4 


13. 


14.8 


18.7 


22.5 


27.5 


35.3 


43.6 


52.1 


60. 


67.7 


31 


8.5 


10.7 


13.5 


15.3 


19.3 


23.3 


28.4 


36.4 


45.1 


53.9 


62. 


70. 


32 


8.8 


11.1 


13.9 


15.8 


19.9 


24.1 


29.3 


37.6 


46.5 


55.6 


64. 


72.2 


33 


9.1 


11.4 


14.3 


16.3 


20.5 


24.8 


30.2 


38.8 


48. 


57.4 


66. 


74.4 


34 


9.4 


11.7 


14.7 


16.8 


21 2 


25.6 


31.1 


40. 


49.5 


59.1 


68. 


76.7 


35 


9.6 


12.1 


15.2 


17.3 


21 '. 8 


26.3 


32. 


41.1 


50.9 


60.8 


70. 


79. 


36 


9.9 


12.5 


15.6 


17.8 


22.4 


27. 


33. 


42.3 


52.4 


62.6 


72. 


81.3 


37 


10.2 


12.8 


16.1 


18.3 


23. 


27.8 


33.9 


43.5 


53.8 


64.3 


74. 


83.5 


38 


10.5 


13.2 


16.5 


18.8 


23.7 


28.5 


34.8 


44.6 


55.2 


66. 


76. 


85.8 


39 


10.7 


13.5 


16.9 


19.3 


24.3 


29.3 


35.7 


45.8 


56.7 


67.8 


78. 


88. 


40 


11. 


13.8 


17.4 


19.8 


24.9 


30.1 


36.6 


47. 


58.2 


69.5 


80. 


90.2 


41 


11.3 


14.2 


17.8 


20.3 


25.5 


30.8 


37.6 


48.2 


59.6 


71.3 


82. 


92.5 


42 


11.5 


14.5 


18.2 


20.8 


26.1 


31.6 


38.5 


49.4 


61.1 


73. 


84. 


94.8 


43 


11.8 


14.9 


18.7 


21.3 


26.8 


32.3 


39.4 


50.6 


62.5 


74.8 


86. 


97. 


44 


12.1 


15.2 


19.1 


21.8 


27.4 


33.1 


40.3 


51.7 


64. 


76.5 


88. 


99.3 


45 


12.4 


15.6 


19.5 


22.2 


28. 


33.8 


41.2 


52.9 


65.5 


78.2 


90. 


101.6 


46 


12.7 


15.9 


20.0 


22 7 


28.6 


34.6 


42.2 


54. 


67. 


80.0 


92. 


103.8 


47 


12.9 


16.3 


20.4 


23^2 


29.2 


35.3 


43. 


55.2 


68.4 


81.7 


94. 


106. 


48 


13.2 


16.6 


20.8 


23.7 


29.9 


36.1 


43.9 


56.4 


69.8 


83.5 


96. 


108.4 


49 


13.5 


17. 


21.3 


24.2 


30.5 


36.8 


44.8 


57.6 


71.2 


85.1 


98. 


110.5 


50 


13.8 


17.3 


21.7 


24.7 


31.1 


37.6 


45.8 


58.7 


72.7 


87. 


100. 


112.8 



32 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



-gEnfe 




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OO^U3»OiOlO<r>CDCOCDI>l>t>t^000000000505C35aiOOOO<--li-H'-Hr-l(NtNCNCN 

^H rHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH 

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CO rHrHrHrHrHrH 

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CM i-H 

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cOT-tiH<NCNcq<Ncocococo^^^^^o^ococococoi>t--r-.i>ooooooooos050s 

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^rHrHrHCN(NC<IC<lC0COC0C0^^^TPlOU3»OlOCOCOCOCOr^l^t^t-.00000000CiCS 

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(qsBg gaipnjoui) aoBjang sstb\q p ^aa_[ aaranbg 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



33 



fa&H&H 



■p D si 






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O^COMi©O^OOC^^O^^CSlcDO^COMCOO-*OOC^CDO^OOC^COOThOOCSI 
OCDCDI>t^OOOOGOa502000T^^(^C^CslCOM^^-^iO«oSocOt-t^OoSoOOS 

WCDCONNaWWfflOSOOOHHIMNINMKi^^^SlflSSSNNWWM 
OQOCaOOr^QOC^COO^GOC^COO^OOCslCOO^QOC^COO^OO^JCDOTttQOfMcO 

2:2££i£P;*££SS^XS£ ^^^ 00 ^ OT ^^o^<x>i^<oo^oo<^ 

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CO i— IHHi- li— < i—l t — I ,—t ,— I ,-H t-H t— IHHHr- 1 i— Ir— It— |HH 

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(qsBg 3uipnjouj) asrejJtig ssbiq jo ^88^ axenbg 



34 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The table on page 33 shows the quantity of radiation required 
for water heating apparatus, when operated under the conditions 
named in the table. Example: A room contains 60 square feet of 
glass and 340 square feet of wall; how much radiation is 
required? 

Look for the intersection of the lines corresponding to 60 
square feet of glass and 340 square feet of wall, and find 102, 
the quantity of radiation required in square feet. For tem- 
perature differences other than 70, multiply figures found in 
the table by the following factors: 

30 degrees temperature difference by .43 
40 degrees temperature difference by .59 
45 degrees temperature difference by .65 
50 degrees temperature difference by .72 
55 degrees temperature difference by .79 
60 degrees temperature difference by .86 
65 degrees temperature difference by .93 
75 degrees temperature difference by 1.08 
80 degrees temperature difference by 1.14 
90 degrees temperature difference by 1.28 
100 degrees temperature difference by 1.43 

The following rules regarding heating by steam are given by 
Babcock & Wilcox: 

Heating by Steam. — In heating buildings by steam the 
amount of boiler and heating pipes depends largely on the kind 
of building and its location. Wooden buildings require more 
than stone, and stone more than brick. Iron fronts require 
still more, and glass in windows demands twenty times as much 
heat as the same surface in brick walls. Also if the heating 
be done by indirect radiation from 50 to 100 per cent more sur- 
face will be required than when direct radiation is used. No 
rules can be given which will not require a liberal application 
of "the coefficient of common sense." 

Radiating surface may be calculated by the rule: Add together 
the square feet of glass in the windows, the number of cubic feet 
of air required to be changed per minute, and one-twentieth the 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 35 

surface of external wall and roof; multiply this sum by the differ- 
ence between the required temperature of the room and that of the 
external air at its lowest point and divide the product by the differ- 
ence in temperature between the steam in the pipes and the required 
temperature of the room. The quotient is the required radiating 
surface in square feet. Each square foot of radiating surface 
may be depended upon in average practice to give out three 
heat-units per hour for each degree of difference in tempera- 
ture between the steam inside and the air outside, the range 
under different conditions being about 50 per cent above or 
below that figure. In indirect heating the efficiency of the 
radiating surface will increase, and the temperature of the air 
will diminish, when the quantity of the air caused to pass 
through the coil increases. Thus one square foot radiating 
surface, with steam at 212°, has been found to heat 100 cubic 
feet of air per hour from zero to 150°, or 300 cubic feet from 
zero to 100° in the same time. 

The best results are attained by using indirect radiation to 
supply the necessary ventilation, and direct radiation for the 
balance of the heat. The best place for a radiator in a room 
is beneath a window. Heated air cannot be made to enter a 
room unless means are provided for permitting an equal amount 
to escape. The best place for such exit openings is near the 
floor. 

Small pipes are more effective than large. When the diameter 
is doubled, 20 per cent additional surface should be allowed, and 
for three times the diameter 30 per cent additional is required. 
For indirect radiation that surface is most efficient which secures 
the most intimate contact of the current of air with the heated 
surface. Rooms on windward side of house require more radi- 
ating surface than those on sheltered side. 

Where the condensed water is returned to the boiler, or where 
low pressure of steam is used, the diameter of mains leading from 
the boiler to the radiating surface should be equal, in inches, 
to one-tenth the square root of the radiating surface, mains in- 
cluded, in square feet. Thus a 1-inch pipe will supply 100 square 
feet of surface, itself included. Return pipes should be at 
least f inch in diameter, and never less than one-half the diam- 
eter of the main — longer returns requiring larger pipes. A 
thorough drainage of steam-pipes will effectually prevent all 
cracking and pounding noises therein. 



36 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The amount of air required for ventilation is from 4 to 16 
cubic feet per minute for each person, the larger amount being 
for prisons and hospitals. From § to 1 cubic foot per minute 
should be allowed for each lamp or gas-burner employed. 

One square foot of boiler surface will supply from 7 to 10 
square feet of radiating surface, depending upon the size of 
boiler and the efficiency of its surface, as well as that of the 
radiating surface. Small boilers for house use should be much 
larger proportionately than large plants. Each horse-power of 
boiler will supply from 240 to 360 feet of 1-inch steam-pipe, or 
from 80 to 120 square feet of radiating surface. 

Cubic feet of space has little to do with amount of steam or 
surface required, but is a convenient factor for rough calcula- 
tions. Under ordinary conditions one horse-power will heat, 
approximately, in 

Brick dwellings, in blocks, as in cities. . . 15,000 to 20,000 cu. ft. 

Brick stores, in blocks 10,000 to 15,000 cu. ft. 

Brick dwellings, exposed all round 10,000 to 15,000 cu. ft. 

Brick mills, shops, factories, etc 7,000 to 10,000 cu. ft. 

Wooden dwellings, exposed 7,000 to 10,000 cu. ft. 

Foundries and wooden shops 6,000 to 10,000 cu. ft. 

Exhibition buildings, largely glass, etc. 4,000 to 15,000 cu. ft. 

The system of heating mills and manufactories by means of 
pipes placed overhead is being largely adopted, and is recom- 
mended by the Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire Insurance 
Company, in preference to radiators near the floor, particularly 
for rooms in which there are shafting and belting to circulate 
the air. 

In heating buildings care should be taken to supply the 
necessary moisture to keep the air from becoming "dry" and 
uncomfortable. The capacity of air for moisture rises rapidly 
as it is heated, it being four times as great at 72° as at 32°. For 
comfort, air should be kept at about "50 per cent saturated." 
This would require one pound of vapor to be added to each 
2,500 cubic feet heated from 32° to 70°. 

A much-needed attachment has recently been introduced, 
which acts automatically upon the steam- valves of the radiators, 
or upon the hot-air registers and ventilators, and maintains 
the temperature in a room to within one-half a degree of any 
standard desired. 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



37 



A "separator" acting by centrifugal force has been recently 
tested, and is very efficient, in trapping out all the water en- 
trained in steam. It will be found valuable, particularly where 
the steam has to be carried a long distance from the boiler, 
and for the purpose of preventing "hammering" of water in 
the pipes. 

Resistance to Flow by Bends, Valves, etc. — Mr. Briggs 
states in "Warming Buildings by Steam," that the resist- 
ance at the entrance to a pipe consists of two parts, namely, 



the head, 



2g' 



which is necessary to create the velocity of flow 



and the head, 0.505—, which overcomes the resistance to en- 

trance offered by the mouth of the pipe. The total loss of head 

v 2 
at entrance then equals the sum of these, or 1.505—, in which 

v= velocity of flow of steam in the pipe, in feet per second, 
and g= acceleration due to gravity, or 32.2. 

The Babcock & Wilcox Company state in "Steam" that the 
resistance at the opening and that at a globe valve are each 
about the same as that caused by an additional length of straight 
pipe, as computed by the formula 



Additional length of pipe 



1 14 X diameter of pipe 
1+ (3.6 -=- diameter) ' 



from which has been computed the following table: 



Diameter in inches. . . . 
Additional length, feet. 

Diameter in inches. . . . 
Additional length, feet 



2 


2* 


3 


3+ 


4 


5 


6 


7 


10 


13 


16 


20 


28 


36 


8 


10 


12 


15 


18 


20 


22 


53 


70 


88 


115 


143 


162 


181 



24 
200 



The resistance to flow at a right-angled elbow is about equal 
to § that of a globe valve. 

The above values are to be considered as being only approxi- 
mations to the truth. 

Example. — Find the discharge from a steam-pipe when the 
given length = 120 feet and the diameter = 8 inches, the pipe 
containing 6 right-angled elbows and two globe valves, the 
pressure at the two ends being respectively 105 and 103 pounds 
per square inch gauge. 



38 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The resistance to entrance, from the above table, for 8-inch 
pipe =53 feet; the resistance of 6 elbows = 6 X 53 Xf = 212 feet; 
the resistance of two globe valves = 2X53 = 106 feet; making 
a total resistance =53 + 212+ 106 =371 feet of additional length 
of pipe. Therefore the steam would encounter the same resist- 
ance flowing through a straight 8-inch pipe whose length 
equals 120+371, or 491 feet, as it would in flowing through 
the given pipe with its various resistances. 

Then in the formula 



L=491 feet; p =105 pounds per square inch; p 2 = 103 pounds 
per square inch; d=8 inches; c, for an 8-inch pipe, =60.7; 
and w, from table of Properties of Saturated Steam, =0.27. 
Substituting in formula we get 



17 = 60.74/ Q - 27 ( 1Q 5-1 03)8 5 =364. 

y 49i 



The pipe, then, under the stated conditions, would dis- 
charge approximately 364 pounds of steam per minute, or 
21,800 pounds per hour; which, on the basis of 30 pounds 
per horse-power hour, would have a capacity of 728 boiler 
horse-powers. Since one pound of steam at 104 pounds gauge 
has a volume of 3.7 cubic feet, the pipe would discharge 1,350 
cubic feet per minute, or 81,000 cubic feet per hour. 

Non-conducting Coverings for Steam-pipes. — A bare pipe 
carrying steam, and made of iron, steel, or other conducting mate- 
rial, loses heat by convection to the surrounding air and by 
radiation to the surrounding objects, both of which cause a loss 
of steam by condensation. 

This loss is lessened in practice by covering the outer surface 
of the steam-pipe with a material that will offer a greater resist- 
ance to the flow of heat than that offered by the material of the 
pipe. 

A good material for this purpose should not suffer serious 
deterioration from the heat or vibration to which it would be 
subjected in practice; and in all cases where damage from fire 
might result, it should never consist of combustible matter. 
Under the conditions of practice, especially in places where it 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 39 

may become damp, a good pipe covering should consist of mate- 
rials that will not rapidly deteriorate, and should contain nothing 
that will seriously corrode the pipe. 

Since air does not take up heat by radiation, but receives 
heat by contact with a hot body only, it would appear that the 
greater the porosity of a material — that is, the greater the per- 
centage of volume of finely divided air it contains — the greater 
will be its non-conducting qualities. This is noticeably the case 
in the commercial pipe coverings that consist substantially of 
the same materials, when these materials contain different per- 
centages of still air. In every case the more porous the mate- 
rial, other things being equal, the greater will be its non-con- 
ducting properties. 

The following table contains averages made up from results 
obtained by a number of carefully conducted tests, and repre- 
sent approximately what may be expected when these materials 
are properly applied as steam-pipe coverings in practice. The 
table gives the quantity of heat transmitted through covered 
steam-pipes, when that transmitted through a naked pipe is 
taken as 100, the covering, except where otherwise indicated, 
being one inch thick. 

xrz j „r ri„,r«„: Relative Amount of 

Kind of Covering. Heat Transmitted . 

Naked pipe. . 100 

Hair-felt, asbestos lined and canvas covered 16 to 18 

Wool felt, " " " " " 20 " 22 

Two layers of asbestos paper 70 ' ' 80 

Four " " " " 45 " 55 

Asbestos mixed with some plaster of Paris 28 ' ' 34 

Magnesia mixed with a little asbestos fibre, canvas cov- 
ered 18 " 20 

Best mineral wool, lined and canvas covered 18 " 20 

Pipe painted with black asphaltum about 105 

" " " white glossy paint " 95 

For coverings having values less than 25 in the above table, 
the values for thicknesses of covering of 1J and 2 inches (those 
in the table being for 1 inch, as noted) may be approximately 
obtained by multiplying respectively by 0.78 and 0.58. Thus 
a pipe covered with magnesia and canvas covered would trans- 
mit an amount, if 1^ inches thick, = (18 to 20) X 0.78 = 14 to 15.5; 
and if 2 inches thick an amount = (18 to 20) X 0.58 = 10.5 to 11.5, 



40 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



that transmitted by a similar bare pipe being 100 in the same 
length of time. 

The following table gives the result of tests made by G. B. 
Dunford, of Hamilton, Ont., of various materials in regard to 
their quality as a non-conductor of heat. 



Combination of -asbestos, hair-felt, air space, 

and wood 100 

Asbestos and hair-felt chopped and mixed with 

lime putty 87 

A plastic cement manufactured by parties at 

Troy, N. Y., with \ inch hair-felt outside . . 86.6 
Paper pulp mixed with lime putty, 1 inch, cov- 
ered with sheeting of wood pulp 85 

Mineral wool cased with wood 81 

Mineral wool cased with sheet iron „ 79 

Charcoal 60 

Sawdust 41 

Loam and chopped straw sealed with wood. ... 32 

Asbestos 29 

Coal ashes 24 

Air space 20 

Fire-brick 15 

Red brick 12 

Sand 9.3 



per cent. 



Steam. — Under the ordinary atmospheric pressure of 14.7 
pounds per square inch, water boils at 212° F., passing off 
as steam, the temperature at which it boils varying with a 
variation in the pressure. 

Dry Steam is steam not containing any free moisture. It 
may be either saturated or superheated. 

Wet Steam is steam containing free moisture in the form 
of spray or mist, and has the same temperature as dry satu- 
rated steam of the same pressure. 

Saturated Steam is steam in its normal state, that is, steam 
whose temperature is that due its pressure; by which is meant 
steam at the same temperature as that of the water from which 
it was generated and upon which it rests. 

Superheated Steam is steam at a temperature above that 
due to its pressure. 

A British Thermal Unit is the quantity of heat required 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 41 

to raise one pound of water at 39°. 1 F. through one degree 
of temperature. 

The Total Heat of the Water is the number of British 
thermal units needed to raise one pound of water from 32° F. 
to the boiling-point under the given pressure. 

The Latent Heat of Steam is the number of British thermal 
units required to convert one pound of water, at the boiling- 
point, into steam of the same temperature. 

The Total Heat of Saturated Steam is the number of heat- 
units required to raise a pound of water from 32° F. to the 
boiling-point, at the given pressure, plus the number required 
to evaporate the water at that temperature. 

The Specific Heat of Steam is the quantity of heat required 
to raise the temperature of one pound of steam through one 
degree of temperature. In British units and near the satura- 
tion temperature it equals, at constant pressure, 0.48. 

The Specific Gravity of Steam at any temperature and 
pressure, as compared with air of same temperature and pres- 
sure, is approximately 0.622. One cubic inch of water evapo- 
rated into steam at 212° F, becomes 1646 cubic inches, that is, 
nearly 1 cubic foot. 

Water in contact with saturated steam has the same tem- 
perature as the steam itself. Water introduced into super- 
heated steam will be vaporized until the steam becomes satu- 
rated and its temperature becomes that due its pressure. Cold 
water, or water at a lower temperature than that of the steam, 
introduced into saturated steam will condense some of it, 
thus lowering both the temperature and pressure of the rest 
until the temperature again equals that due its pressure. 

Useful Rules and Information. — Steam. — A cubic inch of 
water evaporated under ordinary atmospheric pressure is con- 
verted into 1 cubic foot of steam (approximately). 

The specific gravity of steam (at atmospheric pressure) is 0.411 
that of air at 34° Fahr., and 0.0006 that of water at the same 
temperature. 

26.32 cubic feet of steam at 212 degrees weigh 1 pound; 
13.141 cubic feet of air weigh 1 pound at sea level. 

Locomotives average a consumption of 3,000 gallons of water 
per 100 miles run. 

The best-designed boilers, well set, with good draft and skil- 
ful firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 pounds of water per pound 
of first-class coal. 



42 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

In calculating horse-power of tubular or flue boilers, consider 
15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to one nominal 
horse-power. 

On 1 square foot of grate can be burned on an average from 10 
to 12 pounds of hard coal, or 18 to 20 pounds of soft coal, per 
hour, with natural draft. With forced draft nearly double 
these amounts can be burned. 

Steam-engines, in economy, vary from 14 to 60 pounds of feed- 
water and from 1| to 7 pounds of coal per hour per indicated 
horse-power. See table below for duty of high-grade engines. 

Condensing-engines require from 20 to 30 gallons of water, at 
an average low temperature, to condense the steam represented 
by every gallon of water evaporated in the boilers supplying 
engines — approximately for most engines, we say, from 1 to 1§ 
gallons condensing water per minute per indicated horse-power. 

Surface condensers should have about 2 square feet of tube 
(cooling) surface per horse-power for a compound steam-engine. 
Ordinary engines will require more surface according to their 
economy in the use of steam. It is absolutely necessary to 
place air-pumps below condensers to get satisfactory results. 

Ratio of Vacuum to Temperature (Fahrenheit) of Feed- 
water. 
00 inches vacuum 212° 



11 

18 

22£ 

25* 

27| 

28i 

29 


1 1 t i 
a ii 

it ti 
<i tt 

t t it 




... 190° 
... 170° 
... 150° 
... 135° 
... 112° 


tt tt 




... 92° 


it it 




... 72° 


29§ 
Weigh 


n ti 




... 52° 


t and Comparative Fuel 


Value 


of Wood 



1 cord air-dried hickory or hard maple weighs about 4500" 
pounds, and is equal to about 2000 pounds coal. 

1 cord air-dried white oak weighs about 3850 pounds, and is 
equal to about 1715 pounds coal. 

1 cord air-dried beech, red oak, or black oak weighs about 
3250 pounds, and is equal to about 1450 pounds coal. 

* Usually considered the standard point of efficiency — condenser and air- 
pump being well proportioned. 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



43 



1 cord air-dried poplar (whitewood), chestnut, or elm weighs 
about 2350 pounds, and is equal to about 1050 pounds coal. 

1 cord air-dried average pine weighs about 2000 pounds, and 
is equal to about 925 pounds coal. 

From the above it is safe to assume that 2| pounds of dry- 
wood is equal to 1 pound average quality of soft coal, and that 
the full value of the same weight of different woods is very nearly 
the same — that is, a pound of hickory is worth no more for fuel 
than a pound of pine, assuming both to be dry. It is important 
that the wood be dry, as each 10 per cent of water or moisture 
in wood will detract about 12 per cent from its value as fuel. 

PIPE DATA. 



u 


.2 

o3 




• S 2I 

Pi ccc 


r » o 


tn 

a 
o 

O 

.-i o 

m O 

o ~ 


5 ° 


oo ^ 


o3 a 

S-9 
•1 


< . 

, m 


a a 

is.s 






0> A 


H o 
■8-S 

S g 


B 


a 


o 


i-l 


& 


O 


£ 


fc 


£ 


.3048 


2.652 


4.502 


.221 


.0102 


*— 0.84 


14 


f 


.5333 


3.299 


3.637 


.274 


.0230 


f— 1.126 


14 


1 


.8627 


4.134 


2.903 


.344 


.0408 


1 — 1.670 


11* 


H 


1.496 


5.215 


2.301 


.434 


.0638 


11— 2.258 


11* 


1* 


2.038 


5.969 


2.010 


.497 


.0918 


1*— 2.694 


11* 


2 


3.355 


7.461 


1.611 


.621 


.1632 


2 — 3.667 


11* 


2* 


4.783 


9.032 


1.328 


.752 


.2550 


2*— 5.773 


8 


3 


7.368 


10.99 


1.091 


.916 


.3673 


3 — 7.547 


8 


3* 


9.837 


12.56 


.955 


1.044 


.4998 


33 — 9.055 


8 


4 


12.730 


14.13 


.849 


1.178 


.6528 


4 —10.728 


8 


4* 


15.939 


15.70 


.765 


1.309 


.8263 


4^ — 12.492 


8 


5 


19.990 


17.47 


.629 


1.656 


1 . 0200 


5 —14.564 


8 


6 


2S.889 


20.81 


.577 


1.733 


1 . 5500 


6 —18.767 


8 



Duty of Steam-engines. — A well-known engineer of high 
authority gives the following comparative figures, showing the 
economy of high-grade steam-engines in actual practice: 



Type of Engine. 



Non-condensing 

Condensing. 

Compound jacketed 

Triple-expansion jacketed, 



o . 

3 o3 

Q. 0> 

H 



210° 
100° 
100° 
100° 



° w B c3 

S>»so 



10.5 
9.4 
9.4 
9.4 



2 ® 

03 en 
-^3 

°tc ° 



o&a 

CM 



g <u co 



3 ^ » 



2.75 
2.12 
1.81 
1.44 



P-i Co3 

O 



SO. 0073 
0.0056 
0.0045 
0.0036 



44 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



The effect of a good condenser and air-pump should be to 
make available about 10 pounds more mean effective pressure 
with the same terminal pressure; or to give the same mean 
effective pressure with a correspondingly less terminal pressure. 
When the load on the engine requires 20 pounds M.E.P., the 
condenser does half the work; at 30 pounds, one- third of the 
work; at 40 pounds, one-fourth, and so on. It is safe to assume 
that practically the condenser will save from one-fourth to one- 
third of the fuel, and it can be applied to any engine, cut-off, or 
throttling where a sufficient supply of water is available. 

Sizes of Mains for Indirect Heating. — Where there are 
only one or two indirect stacks on a job, run a separate main 
from the boiler to the indirect radiator. 

On account of the slight elevation of the indirect stacks over 
the heater, the mains for hot water should be of ample size be- 
cause of the slow velocity of the flow. The table below will be 
found to give good results. 



For Steam 


For Water 


Size Pipe 


Ft. Radiation 


Size Pipe 


Ft. Radiation 


liin. 


60 sq. ft. 


H in. 


60 sq. ft. 


H " 


120 


ii " 

1 2 


100 " 


2 " 


250 


2 " 


225 " 


2i " 


400 


2* " 


325 " 


3 " 


750 


3 " 


500 " 


34 " 


1000 


3.} "■ 


650 " 


4 " 


1500 


4 " 


850 " 


5 " 


2500 


5 " 


1500 " 


6 " 


3600 


6 " 


2500 " 



Comparison of Thermometric Scales. — To convert the 
degrees of Centigrade into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9 
divide by 5, and add 32. 

To convert degrees of Centigrade into those of Reaumur, mul- 
tiply by 4 and divide by 5. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Centigrade, 
deduct 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Reaumur, 
deduct 32, divide by 9, and multiply by 4. 

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Centigrade, 
multiply by 5 and divide by 4. 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



45 



To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Fahrenheit, 
multiply by 9, divide by 4, and add 32. 

In De Lisle's thermometer, used in Russia, the graduation 
begins at boiling-point, which is marked zero, and the freezing- 
point is 150. 

SIZES OF STEAM MAINS. 



Radiation. 



40 to 50 square feet 

100 to 125 

125 to 250 

250 to 400 

400 to 650 

650 to 900 

900 to 1250 

1250 to 1600 

1600 to 2050 

2050 to 2500 

2500 to 3600 

3600 to 5000 

5000 to 6500 

6500 to 8100 

8100 to 10000 



One-pipe Work. 



1 inch 

n 

li 

2 

21 
3 

31 
4 
44 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



Two-pipe Work. 



1 X I inch 

1 X I " 
liXl " 

lixii " 

2 Xli " 
2iX2 " 

3 X2i " 
34X3 " 

4 X3J " 
44X4 " 

5 X44 " 
6X5 " 

7 X6 

8 X6 " 

9 X6 " 



SIZES OF HOT WATER MAINS. 



Direct Radiation. 


Pipe. 


75 to 125 square 
125 to 200 
200 to 300 
300 to 400 
400 to 700 
700 to 950 


feet . . . 


li inch 

li " 

2 

2| " 

3 

34 " 



Direct Radiation. 



950 to 1200 square inch 
1200 to 1500 
1500 to 1900 
1900 to 2300 
2300 to 2800 



Pipe. 



4 inch 
4* " 

5 " 
54 " 



TABLE 


SHOWING 


EXPANSION OF 


WROUGHT IRON PIPE. 


Initial 
Tempera- 


Increase in length per 100 feet when heated to 


ture. 


160° 


180° 


200° 


212° 


228° 


240° 


250° 


259° 


267° 


274° 


Zero, in. 
32° in. 
64° in. 


1.28 
1.02 

.77 


1.44 

1.18 

.93 


1.60 
1.34 
1.09 


1.69 
1.43 
1.18 


1.82 
1.56 
1.31 


1.92 
1.66 
1.41 


2.00 
1.74 
1.49 


2.07 
1.81 
1.56 


2.13 
1.87 
1.61 


2.20 
1.94 
1.69 




He 


>t Wat 


er 


Wat'r 
Boils 


5 
lbs. 


10 
lbs. 


15 
lbs. 


20 

lbs. 


25 
lbs. 


30 

lbs. 



Wrought iron pipe expands, in inches, per 100 feet, 4-5 of 
the increase in temperature of steam or water it is subjected to, 
over the temperature at the time of installation, divided by 100. 

Example. — Temperature when installed, 32 degreees, 10 
pounds pressure = 240 degrees, difference 208 degrees, 4-5 of 
which equals 1 66-100 inches expansion per 100 feet. 



46 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Combustion. — Ordinary, 3 to 5 pounds of coal per square foot 
of grate per hour. 

Fast, 10 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour. 

Evaporation. — 1 cubic inch of water evaporated under atmos- 
pheric pressure is converted into 1642 cubic inches of steam. 

Heat Unit is the measure of energy required to change the 
temperature of 1 pound of water at 62° F. one degree. It is 
equivalent to 778 foot-pounds. 

Coal in Bins. — Anthracite coal requires 36 cubic feet of space 
per ton of 2,000 pounds. 

Stove bituminous coal requires 40 cubic feet of sqace per ton 
of 2,000 pounds. 

Joule's Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. — Experimental 
determinations rate one unit of heat equal to 772 foot-pounds. 

Latent Heat of Liquefaction is defined as the number of units 
of heat absorbed by 1 lb. of a solid, in passing to the liquid state. 

Latent Heat of Vaporization is the number of units 
absorbed by 1 pound of a liquid in the act of passing into vapor. 
A pound of water at 212 degrees passing into steam at 212 degrees 
absorbs as much heat as would have raised the temperature of 
the water 966 degrees, if it had not become latent. 

HEAT REQUIRED TO CONVERT WATER TO STEAM OF DIFFER- 
ENT PRESSURES 
(Treatise on Heat, by Thomas Box.) 



Pressure Above 

the Atmosphere 

in Lbs per 

Square Inch. 


Temperature of 
the Steam. 


Units per Lb. of Water. 


Latent Heat. 


Total heat from 32° 


7 
15 
20 

25 
30 

45 

60 

75 

100 

125 
150 
175 

200 


232° 
250° 
259° 

267° 

274° 
292° 

307° 
320° 
338° 

353° 
366° 
377° 

388° 


950 
937 
931 

926 
920 
908 

897 
888 
876 

865 
856 

848 

840 


1152 
1157 
1160 

1163 
1165 
1171 

1175 
1179 
1184 

1189 
1193 
1196 

1200 



One Foot-pound, equals one pound raised one foot high, 

One Horse Power, equals 550 foot-pounds per second, 

or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, 

or 1,980,000 foot-pounds per hour. 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



47 



The Indicated H. P. op a Steam Engine is measured by 
the number of foot-pounds exerted on the piston, which for a 
double acting engine equals the average steam pressure on the 
piston, multiplied by the piston speed in feet per minute, divided 
by 33,000. 

STEAM TABLE. 



Temperature and Weight of Steam at different pressures from 1 pound per 
square inch to 300 pounds, and the Quantity of Steam produced from 
1 cubic foot of water, according to pressure. 



Total 










Relative 


Total 
Pressure 

per 
Square 

Inch 


Pressure 
per 

Square 
Inch 
meas- 


Pressure 
above 

Atmos- 
phere. 


Sensible 
Tempera- 

ature in 
Fahrenheit 


Total 

Heat in 

Degrees 

from Zero 

of 
Fahrenheit. 


Weight 

of One 

Cubic 

Foot of 


Volume 

of Steam 

Compared 

with 

Water 


ured 
from a 


Degrees. 


Steam. 


from 
which it 


meas- 
ured 
from a 


Vacuum. 










was 
raised . 


Vacuum. 


1 




102.1 


1144.5 


.0030 


20582 


1 


2 




126.3 


1151.7 


.0058 


10721 


2 


3 




141.6 


1156.6 


.0085 


7322 


3 


4 




153.1 


1160.1 


.0112 


5583 


4 


5 




162.3 


1162.9 


.0138 


4527 


5 


6 




170.2 


1165.3 


.0163 


3813 


6 


7 




176.9 


1167.3 


.0189 


3298 


7 


8 




182.9 


1169.2 


.0214 


2909 


8 


9 




188.3 


1170.8 


.0239 


2604 


9 


10 




193.3 


1172.3 


.0264 


2358 


10 


11 




197.8 


1173.7 


.0289 


2157 


11 


12 




202.0 


1175.0 


.0314 


1986 


12 


13 




205.9 


1176.2 


.0338 


1842 


13 


14 




209.6 


1177.3 


.0362 


1720 


14 


14.7 


".6 


212.0 


1178.1 


.0380 


1642 


14.7 


15 


.3 


213.1 


1178.4 


.0387 


1610 


15 


16 


1.3 


216.3 


1179.4 


.0411 


1515 


16 


17 


2.3 


219.6 


1180.3 


.0435 


1431 


17 


18 


3.3 


222 4 


1181.2 


.0459 


1357 


18 


19 


4.3 


225.3 


1182.1 


.0483 


1290 


19 


20 


5.3 


228.0 


1182.9 


.0507 


1229 


20 


21 


6.3 


230.6 


1183.7 


.0531 


1174 


21 


22 


7.3 


233.1 


1184.5 


.0555 


1123 


22 


23 


8.3 


235.5 


1185.2 


.0580 


1075 


23 


24 


9.3 


237.8 


1185.9 


.0601 


1036 


24 


25 


10.3 


240.1 


1186.6 


.0625 


996 


25 


26 


11.3 


242.3 


1187.3 


.0650 


958 


26 


27 


12.3 


244.4 


1187.8 


.0673 


926 


27 


28 


13.3 


246.4 


1188.4 


.0696 


895 


28 


29 


14.3 


248.4 


1189.1 


.0719 


866 


29 



48 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



STEAM TABLE,— Continued. 



Total 
Pressure 

per 
Square 
Inch 
meas- 
ured 
from a 


Pressure 
above 
Atmos- 
phere. 


Sensible 
Tempera- 
ture in 
Fahrenheit 
Degrees. 


Total 
Heat in 
Degrees 
from Zero 
of Fah- 
renheit. 


Weight 
of One 
Cubic 
Foot of 
Steam. 


Relative 

Volume 

of Steam 

Compared 

with 

Water 

from 

which it 


Total 

Pressure 

per 

Square 
Inch 

meas- 
ured 

from a 


Vacuum. 










was 
Raised . 


Vacuum. 


30 


15.3 


250.4 


1189.8 


.0743 


838 


30 


31 


16.3 


252.2 


1190.4 


.0766 


813 


31 


32 


17.3 


254.1 


1190.9 


.0789 


789 


32 


33 


18.3 


255.9 


1191.5 


.0812 


767 


33 


34 


19.3 


257.6 


1192.0 


.0835 


746 


34 


35 


20.3 


259.3 


1192.5 


.0858 


726 


35 


36 


21.3 


260.9 


1193.0 


.0881 


707 


36 


37 


22.3 


262.6 


1193.5 


.0905 


688 


37 


38 


23.3 


264.2 


1194.0 


.0929 


671 


38 


39 


24.3 


265.8 


1194.5 


.0952 


655 


39 


40 


25.3 


267.3 


1194.9 


.0974 


640 


40 


41 


26.3 


268.7 


1195.4 


.0996 


625 


41 


42 


27.3 


270.2 


1195.8 


.1020 


611 


42 


43 


28.3 


271.6 


1196.2 


.1042 


598 


43 


44 


29.3 


273.0 


1196.6 


.1065 


595 


44 


45 


30.3 


274.4 


1197.1 


.1089 


572 


45 


46 


31.3 


275.8 


1197.5 


.1111 


561 


46 


47 


32.3 


277.1 


1197.9 


.1133 


550 


47 


48 


33.3 


278.4 


1198.3 


.1156 


539 


48 


49 


34.3 


279.7 


1198.7 


.1179 


529 


49 


50 


35.3 


281.0 


1199.1 


.1202 


518 


50 


51 


36.3 


282.3 


1199.5 


.1224 


509 


51 


52 


37.3 


283.5 


1199.9 


.1246 


500 


52 


53 


38.3 


284.7 


1200.3 


.1269 


491 


53 


54 


39.3 


285.9 


1200.6 


.1291 


482 


54 


55 


40.3 


287.1 


1201.0 


.1314 


474 


55 


56 


41.3 


288.2 


1201.3 


.1336 


466 


56 


57 


42.3 


289.3 


1201.7 


.1364 


458 


57 


58 


43.3 


290.4 


1202.0 


.1380 


451 


58 


59 


44.3 


291.6 


1202.4 


.1403 


444 


59 


60 


45.3 


292.7 


1202.7 


.1425 


437 


60 


61 


46.3 


293.8 


1203.1 


.1447 


430 


61 


62 


47.3 


294.8 


1203 . 4 


.1469 


424 


62 


63 


48.3 


295.9 


1203.7 


.1493 


417 


63 


64 


49.3 


296.9 


1204.0 


.1516 


411 


64 


65 


50.3 


298.0 


1204.3 


.1538 


405 


65 


66 


51.3 


299.0 


1204.6 


.1560 


399 


66 


67 


52.3 


300.0 


1204.9 


.1583 


393 


67 


68 


53.3 


300.9 


1205 . 2 


.1605 


388 


68 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



49 



STEAM TABLE.— Continued. 



Total 
Pressure 

per 
Square 
Inch 
meas- 
ured 
from a 


Pressure 
above 

Atmos- 
phere. 


Sensible 
Tempera- 
ture in 
Fahrenheit 
Degrees. 


Total 
Heat in 
Degrees 
from Zero 
of Fah- 
renheit. 


Weight 
of One 
Cubic 
Foot of 
Steam. 


Relative 

Volume 

of Steam 

Compared 

with 

Water 

from 

which it 


Total 

Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch 

meas-. 

ured 

from a 


Vacuum. 










was 
Raised . 


Vacuum. 


69 


54.3 


301.9 


1205.5 


.1627 


383 


69 


70 


55.3 


302.9 


1205.8 


.1648 


378 


70 


71 


56.3 


303.9 


1206.1 


.1670 


373 


71 


72 


57.3 


304.8 


1206.3 


.1692 


368 


72 


73 


58.3 


305.7 


1206.6 


.1714 


363 


73 


74 


59.3 


306.6 


1206.9 


.1736 


359 


74 


75 


60.3 


307.5 


1207.2 


.1759 


353 


75 


76 


61.3 


308.4 


1207.4 


.1782 


349 


76 


77 


62.3 


309.3 


1207.7 


.1804 


345 


77 


78 


63.3 


310.2 


1208.0 


.1826 


341 


78 


79 


64.3 


311.1 


1208.3 


.1848 


337 


79 


80 


65.3 


312.0 


1208.5 


.1869 


333 


80 


81 


66.3 


312.8 


1208.8 


.1891 


329 


81 


82 


67.3 


313.6 


1209.1 


.1913 


325 


82 


83 


68.3 


314.5 


1209.4 


.1935 


321 


83 


84 


69.3 


315.3 


1209.6 


.1957 


318 


84 


85 


70.3 


316.1 


1209.9 


.1980 


314 


85 


86 


71.3 


316.9 


1210.1 


.2002 


311 


86 


87 


72.3 


317.8 


1210.4 


.2024 


308 


87 


88 


73.3 


318.6 


1210.6 


.2044 


305 


88 


89 


74.3 


319.4 


1210.9 


.2067 


301 


89 


90 


75.3 


320.2 


1211.1 


.2089 


298 


90 


91 


76.3 


321.0 


1211.3 


.2111 


295 


91 


92 


77.3 


321.7 


1211.5 


.2133 


292 


92 


93 


78.3 


322.5 


1211.8 


.2155 


289 


93 


94 


79.3 


323.3 


1212.0 


.2176 


286 


94 


95 


80.3 


324.1 


1212.3 


.2198 


283 


95 


96 


81.3 


324.8 


1212.5 


.2219 


281 


96 


97 


82.3 


325 . 6 


1212.8 


.2241 


278 


97 


98 


83.3 


326.3 


1213.0 


.2263 


275 


98 


99 


84.3 


327.1 


1213.2 


.2285 


272 


99 


100 


85.3 


327.9 


1213.4 


.2307 


270 


100 


101 


86.3 


328.5 


1213.6 


.2329 


267 


101 


102 


87.3 


329.1 


1213.8 


.2351 


265 


102 


103 


88.3 


329.9 


1214.0 


.2373 


262 


103 


104 


89.3 


330.6 


1214.2 


.2393 


260 


104 


105 


90.3 


331.3 


1214.4 


.2414 


257 


105 


106 


91.3 


331.9 


1214.6 


.2435 


255 


106 


107 


92.3 


332.6 


1214.8 


.2456 


253 


107 



50 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



STEAM TABLE. — Continued. 



Total 
Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch 

meas- 

* ured 

from a 


Pressure 
above 
Atmos- 
phere. 


Sensible 
Tempera- 
ture in 
Fahrenheit 

Degrees. 


Total 
Heat in 
Degrees 
from Zero 
of Fah- 
renheit. 


Weight 
of One 
Cubic 
Foot of 
Steam. 


Relative 

Volume 

of Steam 

Compared 

with 

Water 

from 

which it 


Total 

Pressure 
per 

Square 
Inch 

meas- 
ured 

from a 


Vacuum. 




333.3 






was 
raised. 


Vacuum. 


108 


93.3 


1215.0 


.2477 


251 


108 


109 


94.3 


334.0 


1215.3 


.2499 


249 


109 


110 


95.3 


334.6 


1215.5 


.2521 


247 


110 


111 


96.3 


335.3 


1215.7 


.2543 


245 


111 


112 


97.3 


336.0 


1215.9 


.2564 


243 


112 


113 


98.3 


336.7 


1216.1 


.2586 


241 


113 


114 


99.3 


337.4 


1216.3 


.2607 


239 


114 


115 


100.3 


338.0 


1216.5 


.2628 


237 


115 


116 


101.3 


338.6 


1216.7 


.2649 


235 


116 


117 


102.3 


339.3 


1216.9 


.2674 


233 


117 


118 


103.3 


339.9 


1217.1 


.2696 


231 


118 


119 


104.3 


340.5 


1217.3 


.2738 


229 


119 


120 


105.3 


341.1 


1217.4 


.2759 


227 


120 


121 


106.3 


341.8 


1217.6 


.2780 


225 


121 


122 


107.3 


342.4 


1217.8 


.2801 


224 


122 


123 


108.3 


343.0 


1218.0 


.2822 


222 


123 


124 


109.3 


343.6 


1218.2 


.2845 


221 


124 


125 


110.3 


344.2 


1218.4 


.2867 


219 


125 


126 


111.3 


344.8 


1218.6 


.2889 


217 


126 . 


127 


112.3 


345.4 


1218.8 


.2911 


215 


127 


128 


113.3 


346.0 


1218.9 


.2933 


214 


128 


129 


114.3 


346.6 


1219.1 


.2955 


212 


129 


130 


115.3 


347.2 


1219.3 


.2977 


211 


130 


131 


116.3 


347.8 


1219.5 


.2999 


209 


131 


132 


117.3 


348.3 


1219.6 


.3020 


208 


132 


133 


118.3 


348.9 


1219.8 


.3040 


206 


133 


134 


119.3 


349.5 


1220.0 


.3060 


205 


134 


135 


120.3 


350.1 


1220.2 


.3080 


203 


135 


136 


121.3 


350.6 


1220.3 


.3101 


202 


136 


137 


122.3 


351.2 


1220.5 


.3121 


200 


137 


138 


123.3 


351.8 


1220.7 


.3142 


199 


138 


139 


124.3 


352.4 


1220.9 


.3162 


198 


139 


140 


125.3 


352.9 


1221.0 


.3184 


197 


140 


141 


126.3 


353.5 


1221.2 


.3206 


195 


141 


142 


127.3 


354.0 


1221.4 


.3228 


194 


142 


143 


128.3 


354.5 


1221.6 


.3258 


193 


143 


144 


129.3 


355.0 


1221.7 


.3273 


192 


144 


145 


130.3 


355.6 


1221.9 


.3294 


190 


145 


146 


131.3 


356.1 


1222.0 


.3315 


189 


146 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



51 



STEAM TABLE.— Continued. 



Total 
Pressure 

per 
Square 
Inch 
meas- 
ured 
from a 
Vacuum. 


Pressure 
above 

Atmos- 
phere. 


Sensible 
Tempera- 
ture in 
Fahrenheit 
Degrees. 


Total 
Heat in 
Degrees 
from Zero 
of Fah- 
renheit . 


Weight 
of One 

Cubic 
Foot of 

Steam. 


Relative 

Volume 

of Steam 

Compared 

with 

Water 

from 

which it 

was 
Raised . 


Total 
Pressure 
per 
Square 
Inch 
meas- 
ured 
from a 
Vacuum. 


147 


132.3 


356.7 


1222 2 


.3336 


188 


147 


148 


133.3 


357.2 


1222! 3 


.3357 


187 


148 


149 


134.3 


357.8 


1222.5 


.3377 


186 


149 


150 


135.3 


358.3 


1222.7 


.3397 


184 


150 


155 


140.3 


361.0 


1223.5 


.3500 


179 


155 


160 


145.3 


363.4 


1224.2 


.3607 


174 


160 


165 


150.3 


366.0 


1224.9 


.3714 


169 


165 


170 


155.3 


368.2 


1225 . 7 


.3821 


164 


170 


175 


160.3 


370.8 


1226.4 


.3928 


159 


175 


180 


165.3 


372.9 


1227.1 


.4035 


155 


180 


185 


170.3 


375.3 


1227.8 


.4142 


151 


185 


190 


175.3 


377.5 


1228.5 


.4250 


148 


190 


195 


180.3 


379.7 


1229.2 


.4357 


144 


195 


200 


185.3 


381.7 


1229.8 


.4464 


141 


200 


210 


195.3 


386.0 


1231 . 1 


.4668 


135 


210 


220 


205.3 


389.9 


1232.8 


.4872 


129 


220 


230 


215.3 


393.8 


1233.5 


.5072 


123 


230 


240 


225.3 


397.5 


1234.6 


.5270 


119 


240 


250 


235.3 


401.1 


1235.7 


.5471 


114 


250 


260 


245.3 


404.5 


1236.8 


.5670 


110 


260 


270 


255.3 


407.9 


1237.8 


.5871 


106 


270 


280 


265.3 


411.2 


1238.8 


.6070 


102 


280 


290 


275.3 


414.4 


1239.8 


.6268 


99 


290 


300 


285.3 


417.5 


1240.7 


.6469 


96 


300 



HOW TO DISTINGUISH STEEL FROM IRON PIPE. 

Iron pipe is rough in appearance and the scale on it is heavy, 
whereas the scale on steel pipe is very light and has the appearance 
of small blisters or bubbles, underneath which the surface is 
smooth and somewhat white. Steel pipe seldom breaks when 
flattened, but if a fracture does occur it will be noticed that the 
grain is very fine. Iron pipe when subjected to this test breaks 
easily, and shows a coarse fracture, due to the long fiber of the 
material. 

Dull dies will not work successfully on steel pipe, as they will 
tear, owing to the softness of the metal. 



52 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



HEAT UNITS AND WEIGHT OF WATER. 



Heat units in 


water, between 32 and 212 degrees Fahrenheit and weight of 


water -per 


cubic foot. 












Tem. 


Heat 


Weight, 


Tern. 


Heat 


Weight, 


Tem 


Heat 


Weight, 


Deg. 
Fahr. 


Units. 


lbs. per 
cub. ft. 


Deg. 

Fahr. 


Units. 


lbs. per 
cub. ft. 


Deg. 
Fahr. 


Units. 


lbs. per 
cub. ft. 


32 


0. 


62.42 


123 


91.16 


61.68 


168 


136.44 


60.81 


35 


3. 


62.42 


124 


92.17 


61.67 


169 


137.45 


60.79 


40 


8. 


62.42 


125 


93.17 


61.65 


170 


138.45 


60.77 


45 


13. 


62.42 


126 


94.17 


61.63 


171 


139.46 


60.75 


50 


18. 


62.41 


127 


95.18 


61.61 


172 


140.47 


60.73 


52 


20. 


62.40 


128 


96.18 


61.60 


173 


141.48 


60.70 


54 


22.01 


62.40 


129 


97.19 


61.58 


174 


142.49 


60.68 


56 


24.01 


62.39 


130 


98.19 


61.56 


175 


143.50 


60.66 


58 


26.01 


62.38 


131 


99.20 


61.54 


176 


144.51 


60.64 


60 


28.01 


62.37 


132 


100.20 


61.52 


177 


145.52 


60.62 


62 


30.01 


62.36 


133 


101.21 


61.51 


178 


146.52 


60.59 


64 


32.01 


62.35 


134 


102.21 


61.49 


179 


147 . 53 


60.57 


66 


34.02 


62.34 


135 


103 . 22 


61.47 


180 


148.54 


60.55 


68 


36.02 


62.33 


136 


104.22 


61.45 


181 


149.55 


60.53 


70 


38.02 


62.31 


137 


105.23 


61.43 


182 


150.56 


60.50 


72 


40.02 


62.30 


138 


106.23 


61.41 


183 


151.57 


60.48 


74 


42.03 


62.28 


139 


107.24 


61.39 


184 


152.58 


60.46 


76 


44.03 


62.27 


140 


108.25 


61.37 


185 


153 . 59 


60.44 


78 


46.03 


62.25 


141 


109 . 25 


61.36 


186 


154.60 


60.41 


80 


48.04 


62.23 


142 


110.26 


61.34 


187 


155.61 


60.39 


82 


50.04 


62.21 


143 


111.26 


61.32 


188 


156.62 


60.37 


84 


52.04 


62.19 


144 


112.27 


61.30 


189 


157.63 


60.34 


86 


54.05 


62.17 


145 


113.28 


61.28 


190 


158.64 


60.32 


88 


56.05 


62.15 


146 


114.28 


61.26 


191 


159.65 


60.29 


90 


58.06 


62.13 


147 


115.29 


61.24 


192 


160.67 


60.27 


92 


60.06 


62.11 


148 


116.29 


61.22 


193 


161.68 


60.25 


94 


62.06 


62.09 


149 


117.30 


61.20 


194 


162.69 


60.22 


96 


64.07 


62.07 


150 


118.31 


61.18 


195 


163.70 


60.20 


98 


66.07 


62.05 


151 


119.31 


61.16 


196 


164.71 


60.17 


100 


68.08 


62.02 


152 


120.32 


61.14 


197 


165.72 


60.15 


102 


70.09 


62.00 


153 


121.33 


61.12 


198 


166.73 


60.12 


104 


72.09 


61.97 


154 


122.33 


61.10 


199 


167.74 


60.10 


106 


74.10 


61.95 


155 


123.34 


61.08 


200 


168.75 


60.07 


108 


76.10 


61.92 


156 


124.35 


61 .06 


201 


169.77 


60.05 


110 


78.11 


61.89 


157 


125.35 


61.04 


202 


170.78 


60.02 


112 


80.12 


61.86 


158 


126.36 


61.02 


203 


171.79 


60.00 


114 


82.13 


61.83 


159 


127.37 


61.00 


204 


172.80 


59.97 


115 


83.13 


61.82 


160 


128.37 


60.98 


205 


173.81 


59.95 


116 


84.13 


61.80 


161 


129.38 


60.96 


206 


174.83 


59.92 


117 


85.14 


61.78 


162 


130.39 


60.94 


207 


175.84 


59.89 


118 


86.14 


61.77 


163 


131.40 


60.92 


208 


176.85 


59.87 


119 


87.15 


61.75 


164 


132.41 


60.90 


209 


177.86 


59.84 


120 


88.15 


61.74 


165 


133 . 41 


60.87 


210 


178.87 


59.82 


121 


89.15 


61.72 


166 


134.42 


60.85 


211 


179.89 


59 . 79 


122 


90.16 


61.70 


167 


135 . 43 


60.83 


212 


180.90 


59 . 76 



HEATING APPARATUS, DRYING-ROOMS, GAS- AND 
WATER-PIPES. 

The following rules regarding the installation of heating 
apparatus are taken from the New York Building Code, 1899: 

Sec. 84. Heating- furnace Sand Boilers. — A brick-set boiler 
shall not be placed on any wood or combustible floor or beams. 
Wood or combustible floors and beams under and not less than 
three feet in front and one foot on the sides of all portable boilers 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 53 

shall be protected by a suitable brick foundation of not less 
than two courses of brick well laid in mortar on sheet iron; 
the said sheet iron shall extend at least twenty-four inches 
outside of the foundation at the sides and front. Bearing 
lines of bricks, laid on the flat, with air-spaces between them, 
shall be placed on the foundation to support a cast-iron ash-pan 
of suitable thickness, on which the base of the boiler shall be 
placed, and shall have a flange, turned up in the front and on 
the sides, four inches high; said pan shall be in width not less 
than the base of the boiler and shall extend at least two feet 
in front of it. If a boiler is supported on a cast-iron base with 
a bottom of the required thickness for an ash-pan, and is placed 
on bearing lines of brick in the same manner as specified for an 
ash-pan, then an ash-pan shall be placed in front of the said 
base and shall not be required to extend under it. All lath-and- 
plaster and wood ceilings and beams over and to a distance 
of not less than four feet in front of all boilers shall be shielded 
with metal. The distance from the top of the boiler to said 
shield shall be not less than twelve inches. No combustible 
partition shall be within four feet of the sides and back and 
six feet from the front of any boiler, unless said partition shall 
be covered with metal to the height of at least three feet above 
the floor, and shall extend from the end or back of the boiler 
to at least five feet in front of it; then the distance shall be not 
less than two feet from the sides and five feet from the front 
of the boiler. All brick hot-air furnaces shall have two covers, 
with an air-space of at least four inches between them; the 
inner cover of the hot-air chamber shall be either a brick arch 
or two courses of brick laid on galvanized iron or tin, supported 
on iron bars; the outside cover, which is the top of the furnace, 
shall be made of brick or metal supported on iron bars, and 
so constructed as to be perfectly tight, and shall be not less 
than four inches below any combustible ceiling or floor-beams. 
The walls of the furnace shall be built hollow in the following 
manner: One inner and one outer wall, each four inches in thick- 
ness, properly bonded together with an air-space of not less 
than three inches between them. Furnaces must be built at 
least four inches from all woodwork. The cold-air boxes of 
all hot-air furnaces shall be made of metal, brick, or other incom- 
bustible material, for a distance of at least ten feet from the 
furnace. All portable hot-air furnaces shall be placed at least 
two feet from any wood or combustible partition or ceiling, 



54 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

unless the partitions and ceilings are properly protected by 
a metal shield, when the distance shall be not less than one 
foot. Wood floors under all portable furnaces shall be protected 
by two courses of brickwork well laid in mortar on sheet iron. 
Said brickwork shall extend at least two feet beyond the furnace 
in front of the ash-pan. 

Sec. 85. Registers. — Registers located over a brick furnace 
shall be supported by a brick shaft built up from the cover of 
the hot-air chamber; said shaft shall be lined with a metal 
pipe, and all wood beams shall be trimmed away not less than 
four inches from it. Where a register is placed on any wood- 
work in connection with a metal pipe or duct the end of the 
said pipe or duct shall be flanged over on the woodwork under 
it. All registers for hot-air furnaces placed in any woodwork 
or combustible floors shall have stone or iron borders firmly 
set in plaster of Paris or gauged mortar. All register-boxes 
shall be made of tin plate or galvanized iron with a flange on 
the top to fit the groove in the frame, the register to rest upon 
the same; there shall be an open space of two inches on all 
sides of the register-box, extending from the under side of the 
border to and through the ceiling below. The said opening 
shall be fitted with a tight tin or galvanized-iron casing, the 
upper end of which shall be turned under the frame. When 
a register-box is placed in the floor over a portable furnace, 
the open space on all sides of the register-box shall be not less 
than three inches. When only one register is connected with a 
furnace said register shall have no valve. 

Sec. 86. Drying-rooms. — All walls, ceilings, and partitions 
inclosing drying-rooms, when not made of fire-proof material, 
shall be wire-lathed and plastered, or covered with metal, tile, 
or other hard incombustible material. 

Sec. 87. Ranges and Stoves. — Where a kitchen range is placed 
from twelve to six inches from a wood stud-partition, the said 
partition shall be shielded with metal from the floor to the 
height of not less than three feet higher than the range; if the 
range is within six inches of the partition, then the studs shall 
be cut away and framed three feet higher and one foot wider 
than the range, and filled in to the face of the said stud-par- 
tition with brick or fire-proof blocks, and plastered thereon. 
All ranges on wood or combustible floors and beams that are 
not supported on legs and have ash-pans three inches or more 
above their base, shall be set on suitable brick foundations, 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 55 

consisting of not less than two courses of brick well laid in mor- 
tar on sheet iron, except small ranges, such as are used in apart- 
ment houses, that have ash-pans three inches or more above 
their base, which shall be placed on at least one course of brick- 
work on sheet iron or cement. No range shall be placed against 
a furred wall. All lath-and-plaster or wood ceilings over all 
large ranges, and ranges in hotels and restaurants, shall be 
guarded by metal hoods placed at least nine inches below the 
ceiling. A ventilating-pipe connected with a hood over a range 
shall be at least nine inches from all lath-and-plaster or wood- 
work, and shielded. If the pipe is less than nine inches from 
lath-and-plaster and woodwork, then the pipe shall be covered 
with one inch of asbestos plaster on wire mesh. No ventilating- 
pipe connected with a hood over a range shall pass through any 
floor. Laundry-stoves on wood or combustible floors shall 
have a course of bricks, laid on metal, on the floor under and 
extended twenty-four inches on all sides of them. All stoves 
for heating purposes shall be properly supported on iron legs 
resting on the floor three feet from all lath-and-plaster or wood 
work; if the lath-and-plaster or woodwork is properly protected 
by a metal shield, then the distance shall be not less than 
eighteen inches. A metal shield shall be placed under and 
twelve inches in front of the ash-pan of all stoves that are 
placed on wood floors. All low gas-stoves shall be placed on 
iron stands, or the burners shall be at least six inches above the 
base of the stoves, and metal guard-plates placed four inches 
below the burners, and all wood work under them shall be 
covered with metal. 

Pure Air. — Pure air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in . 
the following proportions: by volume 20.91 parts oxygen to 
79.09 parts nitrogen; by weight 23.15 parts oxygen to 76.85 
parts nitrogen. Air in nature always contains other constituents 
such as dust, carbon dioxide, ammonia, ozone and water vapor. 

Pure Water. — Pure water is a chemical compound of one 
volume of oxygen (O) and two of hydrogen (H), and its chemical 
symbol is H 2 0. 



56 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



DATA FOR INDIRECT STEAM AND HOT WATER 
RADIATORS. 

FLUE SIZES FOR INDIRECT STEAM RADIATORS. 



Feet of Heating 


Area Cold Air 


Area Hot Air 


Size of Register, 




Surface, Square 


Supply, Square 


Flue, Square 


Inches. 




Feet. 


Inches . 


Inches. 






15 


36 


48 


8X12 




25 


54 


72 


9X12 




30 


72 


96 


10X14 




45 


90 


120 


12X15 




65 


108 


144 


12X19 




78 


126 


168 


14X22 




91 


144 


192 


14X24 




104 


162 


216 


16X20 




117 


180 


240 


16X24 




130 


198 


264 


20X20 




143 


216 


288 


20X24 




156 


234 


312 


20X24 





FOR INDIRECT HOT WATER. 



Feet of Heating 


Area Cold Air 


Area Hot Air 


Size of Register 


Surface, Square 
Feet Water. 


Supply, Square 
Inches . 


Flue, Square 
Inches. 


Inches. 




25 


36 


48 


8X12 


50 


54 


72 


9X12 


75 


72 


96 


10X14 


100 


90 


120 


12X15 


125 


108 


144 


12X19 


150 


126 


168 


14X22 


175 


144 


192 


14X24 


200 


162 


216 


16X20 


225 


• 180 


240 


16X24 


260 


198 


264 


20X20 


275 


216 


288 


20X24 


300 


234 


312 


20X24 



The above table applies to floor registers. 
For side wall add 25 per cent. 



Hanging Indirect Stacks. — For cleanliness, as well as for 
obtaining the best results, indirect stacks should be hung one 
side of the register or warm air flue opening, receiving the warm 
air duct from the end of the indirect casing close to the top and 
the cold air duct at the bottom of the opposite end. A space of 
10 inches (preferably 12) should be allowed for warm air above 
the stack. The top of the casing should pitch upward toward 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



57 



its exit at least 1 inch or more in its length. A space of at least 
6 inches (preferably 8) should be allowed for cold air below the 
stack and between it and the casing. 

STANDARD SIZES OF HORIZONTAL TUBULAR BOILERS. 

E. Hodge & Co., East Boston. 



1i 


ad 


"3 


"8$ 

0),Q 
.2 3 


m 

m : 
0)3 
PI 2 


IB • 
CC 03 

0)T3 
C e3 
w 0) 

B6 


0) C 
. ea 


1 o) u 




&6 










In. 


In. 


In. 












24 


5-8 


26 


2 


i 


1 


80 


5 


1040 


920 


I960 


24 


6-8 


26 


2 


^ 




95 


6 


1165 


920 


2085 


24 


7-8 


26 


2 


i 


| 


110 


7 


1290 


920 


2210 


30 


6-9 


36 


2 


i 


t 


129 


9 


1550 


1400 


2950 


36 


7-9 


36 


2 


i 


t 


150 


10 


1750 


1475 


3225 


30 


8-9 


36 


2 


i 


f 


170 


11 


1950 


1475 


3425 


36 


8-3 


34 


2* 


i 


I 


183 


12 


2160 


2025 


4185 


36 


9-3 


34 


2* 


i 


i 


208 


14 


2400 


2025 


4425 


36 


10-3 


34 


2i 


i 


233 


16 


2550 


2100 


4650 


36 


11-3 


28 


3 


i 


§ 


222 


15 


2750 


2250 


5000 


36 


12-3 


28 


3 


! 


3 


243 


16 


2900 


2250 


5150 


36 


13-3 


28 


3 


i 


3 


264 


18 


3200 


2450 


5650 


42 


10-3 


38 


3 


T 6 6 


~g 


309 


21 


3600 


2500 


6100 


42 


11-3 


38 


3 


5 


f 


341 


23 


4050 


2500 


6550 


42 


12-3 


38 


3 


A 


i 


374 


25 


4260 


2725 


6985 


42 


13-3 


38 


3 


A 


407 


27 


4525 


2725 


7250 


42 


14-3 


38 


3 


A 


! 


440 


29 


4850 


2725 


7575 


48 


11-3 


49 


3 


A 


3 

f 


432 


29 


5150 


3250 


8400 


48 


12-3 


49 


3 


A' 


474 


32 


5550 


3360 


8910 


48 


13-3 


49 


3 


A 


515 


24 


6000 


3360 


9360 


48 


14-3 


49 


3 


A 


I 


557 


37 


6300 


3360 


9660 


48 


15-3 


41 


11 


A 


i 


593 


40 


6750 


3750 


10500 


48 


16-3 


41 


A 


633 


42 


7150 


3900 


11050 


54 


15-3 


49 


3* 


ii 


t 


703 


47 


7800 


4200 


12000 


54 


16-3 


49 


sf 


1 1 

32 


l 


752 


50 


8200 


4400 


12600 



BOILING POINTS OF VARIOUS FLUIDS. 
Charles H. Haswell. 



Water in Vacuum 98° 

Water, Atmospheric Pressure. . .212° 

Alcohol 173° 

Sulphuric Acid 240° 



Refined Petroleum 316 c 

Turpentine 315 c 

Sulphur 570 c 

Linseed Oil 597 c 



Boiler and Pipe Covering. — The value of good boiler and 
pipe covering has not been generally recognized as it should 
have been. It is claimed by some experimenters that a lineal 
foot of two inch pipe in use the year round will condense more 



58 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



steam than a dollar's worth of coal will make, and since few 
systems have less than 20 or 25 per cent of their total tax on 
the heater in the form of mains, the saving of coal, or, what 
amounts to the same, the added efficiency of the heater becomes 
manifest. 

For covering boilers and pipes, asbestos is generally used and 
is a high grade non-conductor easily applied. For pipe cover- 
ing it comes molded in sections but for boilers it is usually 
applied in a plastic state and allowed to harden. As a reinforce- 
ment woven wire of a large mesh is often bedded in the layer of 



Plastic asbestos is very easily applied if the following directions 
are followed. 

Do not try to make it adhere to a cold boiler; have the surface 
warm. 

Mix the asbestos for the first coat rather stiff and apply, 
making no endeavor to get a smooth surface. A good way is to 
throw it on by the handful like throwing a snowball. 

Let the first coat set hard, and then apply the second coat 
with a trowel, trowelling it to a smooth surface. 

A fine surfacing finish can be made by mixing a little Portland 
cement with the asbestos for the finishing coat. This will set 
very hard. 

A coat of white lead and oil paint will give added protection 
and a surface that can be easily washed off. 

The following tables give the number of square feet of stock 
required and length to cut stock for covering pipe with asbestos 
paper, f-inch hair felt and canvas: 

SQUARE FEET OF STOCK REQUIRED PER LINEAL FOOT OF 

PIPE. 





1 in. 


liin. 


Hin. 


2 in. 


2£in. 






.48 
.55 

.87 


.52 
.67 
.98 


.60 

.70 

1.05 


.73 

.85 

1.22 


.85 




1.05 




1.37 








3 in. 


3| in. 


4 in. 


5 in. 


6 in. 






Asbestos paper, square foot 

f-inch hair felt, square foot 

Canvas, square foot 


1.00 
1.20 
1.57 


1.15 
1.35 
1.73 


1.30 
1.45 
1.90 


1.57 
1.70 
2.20 


1.85 
2.00 
2.33 







MISCELLANEOUS HEATING DATA 



59 



LENGTH OF STOCK REQUIRED TO GO AROUND A PIPE IN 
INCHES. 





1 in. 


liin. 


liin. 


2 in. 


2£ in. 








51 

6f 

10J 


6i 
HI 


7i 

8f 

12f 


8f 
10i 
14f 


10i 




12§ 




16£ 






Size pipe 


3 in. 


3Jin. 


4 in. 


5 in. 


6 in. 


Asbestos paper 


12 
14f 

181 


131 
16* 

20f 


15| 
17| 
23 


181 
2(H 
26| 


22| 
24 


Canvas 


28 







THICKNESS AND WEIGHT OF ASBESTOS PIPE COVERING. 



Inside Di- 


Thickness 


Weight of 


Inside Di- 


Thickness 


Weight of 


ameter of 


of Cover- 


Covering per 


ameter of 


of Cover- 


Covering per 
Lineal Foot, 


Pipe, 


ing, 


Lineal Foot, 


Pipe, 


ing, 


In. 


In. 


Ozs. 


In. 


In. 


Ozs. 


\ 


7 


8 


7 


li 


55 


I 


1 


9 


8 


li 


65 


1 


| 


10 


9 


li 


75 


li 


| 


12 


10 


It 


85 


H 


29 


15 


12 


120 


2 


1* 


18 


O.D. 






2* 




20 


14 


H 


140 


3 


U\ 


24 


16 


H 


170 


3* 


1* 


23 


18 


l* 


200 


4 


H 


30 


20 


l| 


240 


4£ 


1* 


38 


24 


H 


280 


5 


H 


44 


30 


H 


350 


6 


H 


48 









Asbestos Plastic Cement. — The plastic asbestos is put up 
dry in sacks, of about 60 pounds each, and will cover about 40 
square feet of surface one inch thick per sack. 

Bronzing. — Allow 1 pound gold bronze for each 100 square 
feet radiation. 

Allow \ pound aluminum bronze for each 100 square feet 
radiation. 

Allow 1 quart bronze liquid for each 100 square feet radiation. 

If a coat of priming paint is used, only about half the above 
quantities will be required. 

Do not leave bronzing liquid uncorked when not in use, as 
when exposed to the air it thickens and becomes worthless. 



60 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Do not get any of the bronze in the liquid can, as even a small 
quantity turns the liquid green. 

Use a clean mixing can and a clean brush if good work is 
desired. 

Endeavor to cover surface with one stroke of the brush if 
possible; do not work it more than absolutely necessary. 

Notes on Heating. — Each foot of gas burned requires about 
8.5 cubic feet of air. 

Each pint of oil burned requires about 150 cubic feet of air. 

Each pound of candles burned requires about 160 cubic feet 
of air. 

An average gas burner uses about 4 cubic feet of gas per hour. 

The respiration of an adult person will vitiate about 500 
cubic feet of air per hour, to which should be added the vitia- 
tion from other sources, such as illumination, heat from the 
body, etc. Each adult person will require a supply of about 
1000 cubic feet of air per hour in ordinary rooms. The Laws 
of Massachusetts for the ventilation of school rooms is 30 cubic 
feet of fresh air per minute for each pupil. Thus the average room 
providing for 50 pupils would require 1500 cubic feet per minute 
or 90,000 cubic feet per hour. Contemplating a movement of 
the air at the rate of 5 feet per second, and supply and exhaust 
registers 2 X 2\ feet each, or an area of 5 square feet, would 
insure the desired result. 

The commercial rating of low pressure steam and water boilers 
contemplate the use of standard cast iron radiators. The same 
number of square feet of radiating surface in coils increases the 
tax on the boiler from 15 to 20 per cent over a corresponding 
number of square feet of cast iron radiation, and is estimated to 
be of corresponding greater value in heating. 

The commercial ratings of low pressure steam boilers are 
based on a pressure of 2 pounds of steam (219 degrees) and of 
water boilers an average temperature of 170 in their maximum 
service. Systems of heating that provide for higher pressure 
and temperatures must have larger boilers provided. 

Where radiators do not heat clear through, it is due to one 
of three causes: 

First. An insufficient head of steam to expel the air from 
the radiator, or an insufficient volume of steam. As, for 
example, when running without any apparent pressure on the 
gauge. 



MISCELLANEOUS LIEATING DATA 61 

Second. Traps in the pipe, which fill with water and prevent 
the steam from entering the radiator. 

Third. Defective air valves, which sometimes become water 
sealed, or become filled with dirt, so that the air cannot escape. 

No radiator should be placed less than two feet above the 
water line of the boiler. 

Every heater of boiler should be "blown off" under pressure 
after drawing the fire, to thoroughly empty it of all grease and 
dirt after the first firing. 

Locate the expansion tank of a hot water system in a con- 
venient and accessible place, where there will be no danger of 
freezing, and where it will be well above the highest radiator. 
Connect the bottom opening with the return with not less than 
a 1 inch pipe. 

There should be no stop valve between the tank and the boiler. 
It should have a 1 inch overflow pipe leading if convenient 
to the cellar near the heater, or if it is taken to the outside 
it should be so arranged that there will be no danger of freezing. 

Combustion of Coal. — When coal is exposed to heat in a 
furnace, a portion of the carbon and hydrogen, associated in 
various chemical unions, as hydrocarbons, are volatilized and 
passed off. At the lowest temperature, naphthaline, resins and 
fluids with boiling-points are disengaged; and still higher, 
defiant gas, followed by common gas, light carburetted hydro- 
gen, which continues to be given off after the coal has reached 
a low red heat. What remains after the distilatory process is 
over is coke, which is the fixed or solid carbon of coal, with 
earthy matter, the ash of the coal. 

Taking the fixed carbon, or coke remaining in the furnace 
after the volatile elements are distilled off, for round numbers 
at 60 per cent, the following is an approximate summary of the 
condition of the elements of average coal, after having been 
decomposed, and prior to entering into combustion. 

100 Pounds of Average Coal in the Furnace. 

Composition. Lbs. 

(Fixed) 60 

Carbon (Volatilized) 20 

Hydrogen 5 

Sulphur 1 1-4 

Oxygen 8 

Nitrogen 1 1-5 

Ash 4 

About 100 



62 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Decomposition. Lbs. 

Fixed Carbon 60 

Hydro-carbons 24 

Sulphur 1 1-4 

Water or Steam 9 

Nitrogen 1 1-5 

Ash 4 

100 

Showing a total useful combustible of 86| per cent, of which 
26i per cent is volatilized. While the decomposition proceeds, 
combustion proceeds, and the 26 J per cent of volatilized portions, 
and the 60 per cent of fixed carbon successively are burned. 

Coal may be arranged in five classes. 

1. Anthracite, or blind coal, consisting almost entirely of 
free carbon. 

2. Dry bituminous coal, having 70 to 80 per cent of carbon. 

3. Bituminous caking coal, having 50 to 60 per cent of carbon. 

4. Long flaming or cannel coal, having from 70 to 85 per 
cent of carbon. 

5. Lignite, or brown coal, containing from 56 to 76 per cent 
of carbon. 

In the United States a long ton of coal is 2240 pounds. 

In the United States a short ton of coal is 2000 pounds. 

In Illinois, Kentucky and Missouri 80 pounds of bituminous 
coal make a bushel. 

In Pennsylvania 76 pounds of bituminous coal make a 
bushel. 

In Indiana 70 pounds of bituminous coal make a bushel. 

A cubic foot of solid anthracite coal weighs 93.5 pounds. 

Forty-two cubic feet of prepared anthracite coal weigh one 
long ton. 

To Test a Heating System. — An approximate test of a 
heating system may be made by using the following table which 
will indicate an efficiency in the plant to heat the building to 
70 degrees when the external temperature is zero. 

When external temperature is — 10, plant should heat building 
to 64.7. 

When external temperature is 0, plant should heat building 
to 70.0. 

When external temperature is 10, plant should heat building 
to 75.1. 



PIPING OF HEATING SYSTEMS 63 

When external temperature is 20, plant should heat building 
to 81.1. 

When external temperature is 30, plant should heat building 
to 86.5. 

When external temperature is 40, plant should heat building 
to 93.1. 

When external temperature is 50, plant should heat building 
to 98.7. 

When external temperature is 60, plant should heat building 
to 104.7. 

When external temperature is 70, plant should heat building 
to 110.5. 

The above is only approximate and when used the character 
and construction of the building must be taken into consideration. 

PIPING OF HEATING SYSTEMS. 

Piping Rules. — When installing the piping for any system 
of steam or hot water heating, the following rules should be 
observed. 

Use as few mains as is consistent with the work. Large mains 
from which branches are taken are preferable to separate flow 
and return pipes to each radiator. The larger main of equal 
area to smaller ones has less friction and lesser radiating or 
condensing surface in the basement. 

It is most desirable that the greatest distance possible be 
maintained between the water line of the boiler and the lowest 
and most remote distributing main or branch. Mr. Baldwin 
says: "It should never be less than 4 feet." While that distance 
is desirable, in some cases it is impossible to get this distance, 
and a lesser distance might work well especially if the main is 
not of an exceptionally long length. 

The greatest care should be used in running the pipes. Care- 
lessness or the work of an inexperienced workman may cause 
serious trouble. The pipes must be kept in perfect alignment 
and have a uniform grade so there will be no "traps" or pockets 
to hold the water and obstruct the circulation, and cause " ham- 
mering." 

All horizontal branches should be one size larger than the 
riser which they are to supply, on account of the greater resist- 
ance to the flow as compared to the vertical riser. 



64 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




Risers should not be less than 1J inch, no matter what the 
services may be to which they contribute. Mains and branches 

should be of ample size 
for the radiation they 
are to supply, with due 
allowance for their 
lengths. 

Too small pipes will 
often cause the radia- 
tors to fill with the 
water of condensation 
which cannot return 
until there is no pres- 
sure of steam, causing 
material variation in 
the water line of the 
boiler besides the effi- 
ciency of the radiator 
affected. Too small 
piping has spoilt many 
an otherwise good sys- 
tem of heating, some- 
thing large piping 
never does. For size of mains, etc., see page 45. 

It is desirable that an equalizing pipe connecting the steam 
mains near the boiler to the return connection be placed on all 
boilers, as it will overcome the trouble often experienced as the 
result of greasy or impure water, or that which is heavily charged 
with minerals peculiar to certain localities, and causing a foamy 
condition of the water. 

Piping of One Pipe Single System. — In this system, as 
shown by Fig. 16, page 13, there is but one line of pipe to each 
radiator, or series of radiators, that can be supplied from one 
riser. The main and all pipes must have as much fall as possible 
towards the boiler, and at a point near the boiler the main should 
be relieved and the return condensation carried to the return 
inlet of the boiler. 

In this system the steam supply passes upward and the con- 
densation passes downward to the boiler in the same pipe. 

Piping of One Pipe Circuit System. — In piping for this 
system, as shown by Fig. 17, page 14, the main should be 




Fig. 26. Method of taking Branches from Main. 



PIPING OF HEATING SYSTEMS 



65 



taken to the highest point of the basement above the boiler 
and then with considerable pitch downward (not less than | inch 
in 10 feet) make a circuit of the building, returning and con- 
necting with the boiler below the water line. The branches 
and risers should be ta^n from the top or side of the main, as 
shown by Fig. 26, and extreme care should be used to give all 
horizontal runs of pipe a fall back to the main or riser and to 
insure no pockets being in the line. 

Fig. 27 illustrates the best way to take a branch from the end 
of a main. The end connection should turn up as shown and 
the pipe run at the same level as the other branches. 




Fig. 27. 



Branch Connections at end of Main. 



The main of a one pipe circuit system should be the same size 
its entire length, except where it drops to the boiler on the 
return, where it may be reduced one or two sizes. In this system 
always place an automatic air valve on the return end above 
the water line. 

In this system there should be no noise when in operation, as 
the steam and condensation in the main are flowing in the same 
direction. 

One Pipe Relief System. — In this system the piping is 
done the same as for the one just described, with the addition 
of a return main in the basement to carry back the condensation 
to the boiler, as shown by Fig. 18, page 15. 

The supply main of this system may be reduced in size as the 
branches and risers are taken off, and at each point of reduction 
there should be a relief connection to the return main. The 
return or relieving main should be placed below the water line 
as shown, and each riser should have a relief connection to this 
return main to carry back the condensation. 



66 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



To Rad- 




Two Pipe System Steam Double Circuit Steam 

Fig. 28. Connections to Boiler. 



PIPING OF HEATING SYSTEMS 



67 




Fig. 29. Connections to Radiators. 



68 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




Fig. 30. Special 
Riser Connection. 



Any system of heating having a horizontal return main below 
the water of the boiler is known as a "sealed" or "wet" return 
system. 

If the return main is above the water line of the boiler it is 
known as a "dry" or "open" return, and if the return main is 
below the water line it is known as a "wet" or "sealed" return. 
Two Pipe System. — In the two pipe sys- 
tem, as shown by Fig. 20, page 16, there are 
two mains, one being a supply and one a 
return, and two separate pipes leading to and 
from the radiators, one being the supply and 
one the return leading to the return main. 

The same care as to inclination of pipes, 
etc., should be exercised when installing this 
system as with those previously explained. 

Piping, Connections, etc. — The methods 
of making the connections to the boiler for the 
different systems are shown by Fig. 28. 
All the mains and risers of a heating system should be run as 
direct and with as few fittings as possible. The horizontal runs 
from the riser to the radiators should be as short as possible, and 
should have a good fall toward the 
riser. Fig. 29 shows different meth- 
ods of connecting up radiators, and 
Fig. 30 shows a riser connection 
which will favor or give advantage 
to the lower radiator, as the greater 
amount of steam or water will pass 
up into the branch rather than enter 
the riser to the next floor. 

A special fitting, known as the 
"O. S. Distributer," as shown by 
Fig. 31, can also be used to advan- 
tage when taking branches off a riser. 
The partition in the fitting, as 
shown, splits or divides the flow 
of steam or water, taking what is 
required for the lower radiator. 

Another riser fitting, as shown by Fig. 32 and Fig. 33, is manu- 
factured by A. Y. McDonald & Morrison Mfg. Co., Dubuque, 
Iowa. It is designed to be used either in steam or hot water 




Fig. 31. "O and S" Distributer. 



PIPING OF HEATING SYSTEMS 



69 




Fig. 32. Special Radiator Riser Fitting. 





1 

1 

1 

1 


1 i i j 

! i 

i { i 

i i i J 
















i 






i 


i i i 






























i 


t i 






i 








i 


1 i ! ' 




f- 


i 


i f'-~^~", \ i '"> N i 






i 
i 








i 


^ \f--~-- ; v— -> S A 




/ 


k 


I \ \\ n \ 




L__. 




^ \ \ 


c 


c 


q q c 



Fig. 33. Special Radiator Riser Fitting. 



70 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



heating, where the radiators set one above the other on different 
floors. The branch water-way is larger than the pipes leading 
from it, thus doing away with any possible friction. 

Style A, as shown by Fig. 32, can be used when the radiator 
does not set directly over the lower radiator by using a nipple 
and elbow. 

Style B, as shown by Fig. 33, is used when the radiators are 
placed directly over each other and it is the right distance 
between the valve opening and outlet opening so that it will be 
away from the wall and base-board. 

This fitting also gives favor to the lower radiator. 
Reaming. — The ends of all pipes in a heating system, either 
steam or hot water, should be reamed out as shown by Fig. 34 
to remove all the sharp burs or edges and give an unobstructed 
passage to the steam or water. 

In cutting the pipe, espe- 
cially when cut with a wheel 
cutter, the pressure of the 
wheel in cutting forms a 
bur on the inside of the 
pipe that diminishes the 
area of the pipe consider- 
ably, and if this bur is not removed the full value of the pipe is 
not obtained. 

Size of Returns. — The return pipes of a steam heating sys- 
tem are usually run one size smaller than the supply pipes, and 
it is a good rule for the smaller sizes of pipes, but for the larger 
sizes it can be reduced two or more sizes smaller than the supply. 
The following table gives the size of returns suitable for the 
different sizes of supply mains. 

SIZES OF RETURNS FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS. 



mm 



Fig. 34. Reamed End of Pipe. 



Diameter 


Diameter 


Diameter 


Diameter 


Diameter 


Diameter 


of Steam 


of Pipe 


of Pipe 


of Steam 


of Pipe 


of Pipe 


Supply 


for Dry 


for Wet 


Supply 


for Dry 


for Wet 


Pipe. 


Return. 


Return. 


Pipe. 


Return. 


Return. 


1 


1 


1 


5 


3 


2* 


u 


1 


1 


6 


3£ 


3 


H 


H 


1 


7 


3* 


3 


2 


li 


u 


8 


4 


it 


2* 


2 


I* 


9 


5 


3 


2* 


2 


10 


5 


4 


3£ 


2* 


2 


12 ' 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2i 









PIPING OF HEATING SYSTEMS 



71 



Connection of Wall Radiators. — When both the supply 
and return pipes are below the radiator, they should both be 
connected at the lower corners of the radiator, but if the supply 
is above the radiator then it should be connected at the upper 
corner of the radiator, and the return at the lower opposite 
corner. 

Expansion of Pipes. — When installing a heating system 
for either steam or hot water special attention must be given 
to the question of expansion in the pipes, especially if there are 
any long runs or risers in the system. In long risers an expan- 




Fig. 35. Riser Expansion Loop. Fig. 36. Expansion Loop in Main. 

sion'loop can be arranged in the pipe as shown by Fig. 35; this 
loop can be put in at a floor where it will be concealed from 
view, then the two ends of the riser can be anchored solid and 
the loop will take care of all 



expansion. 

A like arrangement, as 
shown by Fig. 36, can be put 
in a long main or horizontal 
run of pipe. 

The main object to have in 
view to take care of the ex- 
pansion in a run of pipes is 
to have all pipes and fittings 

so arranged that the expansion of the pipes will only tend to 
turn the fittings on their threads. For table of expansion of 
pipes see page 45. 




■a, •.■<?k--g :•:'•?*:•* 



Fig. 37. Metal Pipe Cover in Concrete. 



72 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



When horizontal branches or runs of pipes run through a 
concrete floor they should be covered with a sheet metal cover, 
as shown by Fig. 37, to keep the pipe free from the concrete and 
allow for a movement of the pipe caused by expansion. 

Pipe Bends. — Pipe bends are now being made to take the 
place of fittings, and also to allow for expansion in the pipes. 
A number of these bends, as manufactured by Crane Co., are 
shown by Figs. 38-50. 

SIZE AND RADII OF PIPE BENDS. 





In Inches. 




2* 

4 

10 
50 

12 


3 
15 

4 

12 
60 

14 


3* 
17£ 

5 

14 
70 

16 


4 
20 

5 

15 
75 

16 


224 

6 

16 
80 

20 


5 
25 

6 

18 
108 

22 


6 
30 

7 

20 
120 

24 


7 
35 

8 

22 
132 

28 


8 
40 

9 

24 

144 

32 


q 




45 


Shortest length of straight 


pipe 


11 














Shortest length of straight 


pipe 









MALLEABLE AND CAST IRON PIPE FITTINGS. 

Fig. 51 and Fig. 52 show the shape and style of the various 
malleable and cast iron pipe fittings. Their names are as 
follows : — 



1. 


Elbow. 


2. 


45 degree elbow. 


3. 


Street ell. 


4. 


Drop ell, female. 


5. 


Side outlet ell. 


6. 


Reducing ell. 


7. 


Double branch ell. 


8. 


Long male ell. 


9. 


Drop ell, right hand flange. 


10. 


Drop ell, left hand flange. 


11. 


Tee. 


12. 


4 way tee. 


13. 


Drop tee, female. 


14. 


Cross. 


15. 


Cross over. 


16. 


Cross over with face outlet. 



PIPE FITTINGS 



73 




T4 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




Fig. 51. Pipe Fittings. 



PIPE FITTINGS 



75 



17. Y branch. 

18. Eccentric tee. 

19. Offset. 

20. Offset reducing. Coupling. 

21. Return bend, back outlet. 

22. Return bend. 

23. Cross over tee. 

24. Bushing. 

25. Plug. 

26. Locknut. 

27. Chandelier hook, female. 

28. Eccentric tee. 

29. Eccentric reducer. 

30. Tee reducer on run. 

31. Coupling reducer. 

32. Tee cross over. 

33. Nipple. 

34. Cap. 

35. Union. 

36. Ell with female union. 

37. Double Y branch. 

38. Ell with male union. 




Fig. 51 



Continued. 



76 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Iron Railing Fittings. 

39. Elbow. 

40. Side outlet ell. 

41. Tee. 

42. Side outlet tee. 

43. Cross. 

44. Side outlet cross. 

45. Ornament. 

46. Bushing. 
47-48. Flanges. 

49. Pipe gate hinge. 

50. Latch for pipe gate. 

51. Hand rail tee, adjustable. 

Male Fitting. — A male fitting is one that screws into 
another fitting or opening. 

Female Fitting. — A female fitting is one that screws onto 
a pipe, nipple, or another fitting. 




Fig. 52. Pipe Railing Fittings. 



PIPE FITTINGS 



77 



STANDARD SIZES OF MALLEABLE FITTINGS. 



Elbows. 

i P 

1X1 P 

*1 P&B 

tXi P 

*lXi P&B 

*t B 

4X1 B 

*iXt P&B 

♦4 P&B 

*f Xt P&B 

♦1X4 P&B 

If P&B 

IX f P&B 

*ix*....'...p&b 

♦1X1 P&B 

*1 P&B 

11X1 P&B 

♦11X1 P&B 

♦11 P&B 

14X1 P&B 

14X1 P&B 

♦14X11 P&B 

♦14 P&B 

2X1 P 

2X1 P&B 

2X1J P&B 

*2Xli.... ..P&B 

*2 P&B 

24X14 B 

2|X2 B 

*2i P&B 

3X2 B 

3X24 B 

*3 P&B 

34X3 B 

3* B 

4X3 B 

4X34 B 

*4 B 

44 B 

5 B 

6 B 

Street Ells. 

1 B 

*t B 

*4 B 

1X4 B 

*f B 

1X1 B 

*1 B 

*HX1 B 

liXi B 

♦11 B 

14X1 B 

14X11 B 

*14 B 

2X1 ...B 

2XH B 

2X14 B 

*2 B 

24 B 

24X2 B 

24X14 B 

3 B 



Side Outlet 
Elbows. 

♦fXfXf P 

4X4Xt P 

♦4X4X4 P 

ixlxf P 

1X1X4 P 

♦fXjXf P 

1 X 1 X -I P 

1X1X4 P 

ixixi p 

♦1X1X1 p 

HXHXl p 

HXHXH P 

*14X14X14 P 

2X2X2 P 

Drop Ells. 
Female. 

1X1 P 

Ix! P 

♦fX.f P 

4X1 P 

♦4X4 P 

♦1X4 P 

♦ixi P 

♦1X1 P 

Tees. 

ixixi.. p 

lxixi P 

lxixi P 

txixi P 

*iXiXi-...P&B 
♦iXiXf....P&B 

IXIXI P 

fXiXf P 

ixixi p 

♦fxtxi p 

♦lxfxf....P&B 

♦IXIX4....P&B 
ixtxi P 

*4XtXf....P&B 

4X1X4 P 

♦4X1X4... .P&B 

4XIXI....P&B 

4X4X1... .P&B 

*4X4Xt P&B 

*4X4X4-...P&B 
♦4X4X1... .P&B 

fxiXf....:...P 

*fXfXf....P&B 

♦1X1X4 P 

♦fX|Xf....P&B 

ixtxi P 

1X4X1 P 

♦IX4XI....P&B 
♦1X4X4-.. -P&B 
♦IX4X1....P&B 
*1X4X1... .P&B 
fXfXi ...P&B 
♦|XfXf....P&B 

*fxix4-.-.P&B 

♦|XfXf....P&B 
♦4X1X1... .P&B 



Tees. — Continued. 

ixfxii b 

1X1X4 P 

ixtxi p 

1XIX1....P&B 
♦1X4X4.. ..P&B 

♦1X4X1 B 

♦1X4X1... .P&B 

♦lXiXf... .P&B 

♦1X1X4... .P&B 

♦lXfXf... -P&B 

♦1X1X1... .P&B 

♦1X1XH...P&B 

lXlXi....P&B 

♦IX IX |. ...P&B 

♦1X1X4... -P&B 

♦1X1X1 ..P&B 

♦1X1X1. ...P&B 

♦1X1XH-..P&B 

1 X1X14--P&B 

HXtxH.. P&B 

11X4X1.- .P&B 

*11X4XH..P&B 

HXiXf...P&B 

♦liXf X1...P&B 

♦HXfXli .P&B 

HX1XI...P&B 

♦11X1X4- ..P&B 

♦HX1X1...P&B 

♦HX1X1...P&B 

*11X1XH .P&B 

HX1X14 B 

Hxiixt .P&B 
♦HXHX4 .P&B 
♦HXHXf .P&B 
♦HXHXl .P&B 
*HXHXHP&B 
*HX 11X14 P&B 
11X11X2 .P&B 

14X1X14 B 

14X4X14 -P&B 

14XIXH B 

14X1X14 .P&B 

HXlXf B 

♦14X1X1. ..P&B 
♦14X1XH . •■ -.B 
♦14X1X14 .P&B 

♦14XHXI B 

♦14X11X1 B 

♦14XHXHP&B 
♦14X11X14P&B 

liXllXi B 

14X14X4 .P&B 
♦14X14X1-.P&B 
♦14X14X1 .P&B 
♦14X14XHP&B 
♦14X14X14P&B 
♦1*X14X2 .P&B 

2X1X2 B 

2X4X2... .P&B 
2X1X2... P&B 
2X1X2... .P&B 
♦2 X HXH .P&B 
2XHX14 .P&B 
2X11X2.. .P&B 
2X14X1 B 



Tees. — Continued. 

2X11X1 B 

♦2X14X11 .P&B 
♦2X14X14 .P&B 
♦2X14X2.. .P&B 
♦2X2X4-.. .P&B 
♦2X2X1-.. .P&B 

♦2X2X1 P&B 

♦2X2X11-. .P&B 
♦2X2X1*. ..P&B 

♦2X2X2 P&B 

2X2X24 B 

♦24X24X1 B 

24X24X11 B 

24X24X14 B 

♦24X2^X2 .P&B 
♦24 X 24 X 24 P & B 

3X3X1 B 

3X3X11 B 

3X3X14 B 

♦3X3X2... .P&B 

♦3X3X24 B 

♦3X3X3 P&B 

34X34X2 B 

34X34X24 B 

34X34X3 B 

34X34X34 B 

4X4X2 B 

4X4X24 B 

4X4X3 B 

4X4X34 B 

♦4X4X4 B 

44X44X44 B 

5X5X5 B 

6X6X6 B 



Long Drop. 
fXfX P 



Tees. 
Drop Female. 

1X1X1 P 

fxi-xi P 

♦ixtxt P 

4X1X4 P 

4X1X1 p 

4x-|xt P 

4X4X1 P 

♦1X4X1... .....P 

♦4X4X4 P 

1X4X1 p 

1X4X1 p 

♦1X1X1 P 

*ix^xi P 

♦1X1X4 p 

♦lxixi p 

1X1X1 P 

1X1X1 P 

1X1X4 P 

1X1X1 P 

1X1X1 P 



78 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



STANDARD SIZES OF MALLEABLE FITTINGS.— Continued. 



Tees. — Continued. 

Drop.— M. & F. 

iXiXf P 

txixt P 

♦txtxt P 

ixtxt P 

♦4x4xt P 

ix4xt P 

txixt P 

lxtxt P 

1X1X1 P 

Crosses. 

iXiXi P 

|XiXi P 

ixtxi P 

txtxt p 

4xtxi p 

4xtxt P 

4X4Xi P 

*4X4Xf....P&B 

♦4X4X4-.. .P&B 
tXtXi P 

fxixt P 

♦1x4x4 P 

|XfXf....P&B 

*ixtxi....P&B 

*|XfXf....P&B 
lXiXi....P&B 
lX|Xf....P&B 
1X1XI....P&B 



Crosses.— Con- 
tinued. 

♦1x1x4... .P&B 

♦1X1X|....P&B 
*1X1X1... .P&B 

HXlXi B 

HX1X1 B 

HXHXf B 

*HXliXi .P&B 
*HXHXf .P&B 
♦HXHX1 .P&B 
*HXliXliP&B 
ljXliXH B 

14x14x14 P&B 
♦14x14x1 .P&B 
♦14x14x1 .P&B 
♦14X14XHP&B 
*liXliXl|P&B 
2X2X4-.. .P&B 
*2X2Xf... .P&B 

♦2X2X1 P&B 

*2X2Xli...P&B 
*2X2Xli...P&B 

♦2X2X2 P&B 

24X24X14 B 

24X24X2 B 

♦24X24X24 P&B 

3X3X2 B 

3X3X2* B 

3X3X3 B 

34X34X34 B 

4X4X2 B 

4X4X4 B 



Reducers. 

iXi P 

Ixi P 

tXi P&B 

4Xi P 

**Xt P&B 

fXi P 

IX* P 

*Xi P&B 

lXi P 

1X1 P 

♦1X4 P 

*1X| P&B 

HX! P&B 

*Hxi P&B 

*liXl P&B 

*liXl P&B 

14 Xf P&B 

♦14x4 P&B 

*UX-i P&B 

♦14X1 P&B 

♦14XH-....P&B 

2X| P&B 

2X1 P&B 

*2X1 P&B 

*2XH P&B 

♦2X14 P&B 

2*X1 B 

♦24 XH B 

24X1* P&B 

*24X2 P&B 

3X1 B 

3X11 B 



Reducers. — Con- 
tinued. 

*3X14 B 

3X2 P&B 

♦3X2* P&B 

34X24 P&B 

♦34X3 P&B 

4X2 P&B 

*4X24 P&B 

4X3 P&B 

4X34 P&B 



Extension 
Pieces. 

txt 

4X4 

fXf 



Y Branches. 

4 B 

f B 

1 B 

H P&B 

14 P&B 

11 XU P&B 

2 P&B 

2X14X14 -P&B 

2XU P&B 

2X14 P&B 



Note. — The letter " P " following sizes indicates that Fittings 
are made in Plain pattern only; " B " indicates Beaded pattern; 
"P&B" indicates that they are made both Plain and Beaded. 

In ordering, be particular to state which pattern is wanted. 

* Carried in stock, by Manufacturers, Galvanized. 



PAET II. 

DATA ON BOILERS. MISCELLANEOUS 
INFORMATION FOR PLUMBERS AND 
STEAM-FITTERS. TABLES OF RADIA- 
TION. VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES. 
TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 
TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



DATA ON BOILERS. 

Selecting a Proper Size Boiler. — It is desirable and im- 
portant that in selecting a heating apparatus the capacity should 
be somewhat beyond rather than below the actual requirements 
of the building, for these reasons: 

First. It not only insures ample warmth at all times, but 
gives some reserve capacity to provide against exceptionally 
cold weather, or temporarily to furnish a higher degree of warmth 
when illness of any of the occupants of the house so demands. 

Second. Particularly in a hot water system, the greater the 
amount of radiating surface there is in a room, the lower it will 
be necessary to maintain the temperature of the radiators to 
furnish adequate warmth to the surrounding air. In other 
words, the lower the temperature of the radiating surfaces by 
which the air is warmed, the more completely does the air retain 
its natural purity and vitality. The uniformity of the tem- 
perature of the freshly pure air is also thus best maintained, and 
drafts or overheating prevented. 

Third. By having a boiler of ample size or capacity, a much 
slower combustion of the fuel is permissible. In consequence, 
the water surrounding the fire surfaces of the boiler will be cooler, 
and the greater will be the proportion of heat which the water 
will absorb. Fuel will thereby be saved, as, if the surfaces were 
hotter, the water could not as greedily and completely absorb 

79 



80 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

the heat, and a greater percentage of the heat would, therefore, 
be allowed to escape or to be wasted at the chimney. 

Fourth. By having a boiler of ample capacity, the fire is so 
regulated that no more fuel is used than the amount needed to 
warm the air in the rooms to the degree of temperature desired. 
In these boilers a slow combustion of the fuel is maintained. It 
has been aptly said that in these boilers " the fire dwells and 
dwells." Aside from the advantage of securing a more thorough 
combustion of the fuel, a slow, deep fire also means far less care 
and attention, — twice a day in cold weather, or once on mild 
days. 

Fifth. The mains and risers, or piping, should be of ample 
size, so that there cannot be any possibility of friction or choking 
(more commonly termed " pounding in the pipes "), which, in 
turn, means inefficiency or waste of fuel. 

Sixth. To attempt to operate a boiler having a capacity of, 
say, 1500 square feet to carry 1800 square feet of direct radiation, 
is as destructive and wasteful, as, in a similar way, would be the 
effort to employ a ten-horse-power engine to carry the load of a 
twenty-horse-power engine, or to expect a 1000-pound horse to 
draw a three-ton load. 

The difference in cost between a properly proportioned heating 
system as compared with one penuriously proportioned is too 
small to jeopardize the success of the investment. Dollars so 
withheld will, as surely as the continuation of time, have to be 
paid out over and over again in loss of comfort, waste of fuel, and 
greater care, aside from cost of probable repairs and alterations. 
Money judiciously expended is well invested. 

To Properly Erect Coal, Coke and Wood Burning Sec- 
tional Steam and Water Boilers.* — Set up and bolt together 
squarely the pieces comprising the base, on a level brick or con- 
crete foundation, which is at least a foot larger all round than 
the base. 

Place all of the grates in position and connect them to the 
horizontal shaking bar underneath them. Connect this bar 
through the front of the base to the angle shaking lever, which 
is fastened to the front section by means of a bracket. 

Place on top of the base, and close up against the base front the 
front section, which is marked No. 1. Wipe clean its nipple holes, 

* These instructions are given by the American Radiator Co. for setting 
up the Ideal Boiler, but will apply to any sectional boiler. 



DATA ON BOILERS 



81 



also the connecting nipples ; smear them with good lubricating 
oil; place them in the front section; add the second section 
marked No. 2, after having carefully wiped clean its nipple 
holes, pushing the section up until its front nipple holes register 
with the nipples already placed in the front section. Jar section 
No. 2 up close to the first one with a piece of timber. Place the 
four long connecting bolts in their holes, slipping on each, at 
the rear, one of the square wood washers usually supplied. Screw 
up equally all around, meanwhile striking the rear section, in the 
vicinity of the three connecting holes, with a block of wood 
and a good heavy hammer. 

When the sections are within \ or T 3 g of an inch of each other 
(square all round) then insert four wooden wedges, which are to 
go between each and every section before they are pulled up any 
farther, one on each side just above the lower connecting nipples 
and two on top. These two as far away from the upper con- 
necting nipple as possible. Then screw a little more on the nuts 
until the wedges have been bitten by the two sections, and 
the sections have been drawn together from center to center of 
each section the following distances: 

15" Coal Burning Boiler 6 \ from Center to Center of Sections 

I 1 ntt it 

" 7" " 

it 7 l„ u 

" 1\" " 

" 8i" " 

" 4" " 

" 5V " 

" 6" " 

a 71// it 

' 4 

" sr " 

Then remove the screw rods, add the next section, precisely as 
before, and repeat the operation just described, sawing off each 
time, where they have been marked, a portion of the square 
wood washers. 

If impossible to begin to erect at the front section of boiler, 
start with the back section, as above described. 

After boiler has been assembled complete, be sure to cement 
all joints (which are all points of contact) between sections, 
breaking off the wood wedges, allowing their points to remain 



18" 


" " 


21" 


" " 


24" 


a a 


30" 


it tt 


36" 


tt tt 


No. 1 Coke 


" 2 


tt tt 


" 3 


tt tt 


« 4 


tt it 


" 5 


it it 



to Center 

it a 


Di bectn 


a tt 


i a 


tt it i 


i tt 


tt it t 


i tt 


tt 


u 


■it tt 


a tt 


a tt 


it tt 


a tt 


i tt 


it it 


a 


a it 


it tt 



82 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



undisturbed between the sections, applying cement over them. 
Cement all joints in base and between base and foundation, 
remembering that all air for combustion should enter only 
through the draft doors. 

Smoke pipe and all connections between boiler and flue 
should be air-tight (a leak in the smoke pipe or connections is 
like a leak in a suction pump). 

Do not bush the flow outlets in steam dome. Connect all of 
them to the flow pipe system, using size of pipe called for by 
outlets. 

Do not expect the boiler to do good work until the system has 
been thoroughly cleared of oil. 




Fig. 53. Parts of Sectional Steam and Hot Water Boilers. 



DATA ON BOILERS 



83 



A good damper (accessible and easily handled) in smoke pipe 
near chimney, provided with means for clamping in order that 
it may remain where desired, is usually very necessary for draft 
regulation and fuel saving. 

No boiler will operate successfully on a weak draft, nor will 
it give satisfaction on a strong draft if the flue area is too small. 
(Do not mistake velocity for volume. A test by burning paper 
in a flue proves nothing.) 

Each pound of coal requires for its complete combustion about 
three hundred cubic feet of air. 

To draw this amount of air through the grates, ashes and fuel 
bed, over various heating surfaces and through flues, the proper 
area and height of chimney are essential. 



Names of Parts of Steam and Water Boiler as Shown on 
Figs. 53 and 54. 



7. 


Nipples. 


65. 


Diaphragm case (rubber). 


8. 


Lock nuts. 


66. 


Diaphragm case (weight) 


13. 


Flue door and fire door 


70. 


Cotter pin. 




handle. 


71. 


Bushing. 


19. 


Fire door dampers. 


73. 


Ash front door lift. 


22. 


Ash front door slide. 


74. 


Diaphragm spindle. 


23. 


Ash front door slide knob. 


75. 


Hose bib. 


24. 


Action bracket. 


76. 


Steam gauge cock. 


25. 


Action bracket lever. 


201. 


Front section. 


26. 


Short action bar. 


202. 


Leg section. 


27. 


Long action bar. 


203. 


Fire back section. 


45. 


Grate spindle. 


204. 


Extreme back section. 


52. 


Water column. 


206. 


Return drum. 


53. 


Gauge cock. 


207. 


Nipples. 


54. 


Water gauge cock. 


208. 


Lock nuts. 


55. 


Water gauge glass. 


209. 


Left-hand flue door. 


56. 


Pop valve. 


210. 


Right-hand flue door. 


57. 


Steam cock. 


211. 


Flue door lining. 


58. 


Steam gauge. 


212. 


Flue door name plate. 


59. 


Steam gauge siphon. 


213. 


Flue door frames. 


60. 


Jack chain. 


214. 


Left-hand fire door. 


62. 


Bottle. 


215. 


Right-hand fire door. 


63. 


Diaphragm case (top). 


217. 


Fire door frames. 


64. 


Diaphragm case (bot- 


218. 


Ash front. 




tom). 


219. 


Ash front door. 



84 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Parts shown only on Fig. 54. 



220. Back bonnet. 

221. Back bonnet door. 



222. Back bonnet door frames. 
224. Ash pit back end. 




Fig. 54. Parts of Sectional Steam and Hot Water Boiler (Rear View). 



DATA ON BOILERS 85 



Blowing Off a Steam Boiler. 

A steam boiler should be blown off within one week after it is 
in operation to remove the unavoidable accumulation of oil, 
grease, etc., that have a tendency to cause a boiler to foam, 
preventing the generation of steam and causing an unsteady 
water line. This can only be done when the boiler is under 
pressure. If one blowing off does not result in a steady water 
line and clean gauge, the operation must be repeated a second 
or, if necessary, a third and fourth time. 

1. Close all radiator valves, or, if the mains are valved, 
close both flow and return valves tightly, and also close the cock 
below the diaphragm regulator on boiler. 

2. With a wood fire and boiler filled to center of water glass, 
get up a pressure of not less than 10 to 12 pounds by the steam 
gauge. 

3. Open the blow-off cock, being careful that sufficient fire 
is carried to maintain a pressure until the last gallon of water 
is blown out. 

4. Draw any remaining fire and open all fire and flue doors wide. 

5. Allow the boiler to cool down, which will probably take from 
one-half to one hour, then close the blow-off cock and slowly 
fill boiler to water line. 

6. Open all valves on flow and return lines, the diaphragm 
cock, and also the radiator valves. 

7. Rebuild fire. 

8. Repeat the operation until there is a steady water line and 
a clean gauge glass. 

Horse-Power of Boilers. 

Horse-power is a very elastic phrase as applied to boilers, and 
quite empirical. It may serve as a descriptive or a comparative 
term, but not as expressing any comprehensible power. 

The unit of power for boilers, adapted by the committee of 
judges of the Centennial Exhibition, and now generally used, is 
as follows: 

One horse-power equals 30 pounds of water evaporated into 
dry steam per hour, from feed water at 100° F., and under a 
pressure of 70 pounds per square inch above atmosphere. 

When boilers are rated according to their heating surface 
15 square feet is generally taken as the unit for one horse-power 



86 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

and each horse-power of the boiler will supply from 240 to 360 
feet of one-inch steam pipe, or from 80 to 120 square feet of 
radiating surface. 

The grate area required for various boilers may be computed 
from the horse-power of the boiler as follows: 

Cylinder boiler, multiply the horse-power by .60 

Flue boiler, " " " " .45 

Return tubular boiler, " " " " .50 

Water tube, " " " " .30 

Vertical boiler, " " " " .65 

Cast iron boilers, or heaters, are rated by the manufacturers by 
the amount of direct radiation they will supply, and are usually 
rated high, so when installing a boiler of this type select one with 
a rating of from 25 to 40 per cent higher than the radiation you 
have to supply. 

One square foot of grate surface will consume 10 to 12 pounds 
of hard coal, or 18 to 20 pounds of soft coal, per hour, with 
natural draft. When forced drafts are used, these amounts can 
be doubled. 

Good boilers will evaporate from 8 to 10 pounds of water per 
pound of coal. 

Steam engines will consume from 15 to 60 pounds of water, 
and from 1£ to 7 pounds of coal per hour, for one indicated 
horse-power. 

Two and one-fourth pounds of dry wood are equal to 1 pound 
of average soft coal. 

To Clean a Water Gauge Glass without Removing it 
from Boiler. — 1. Draw a cup full of hot water from the 
boiler, into which put at least a tablespoonful of raw muriatic 
or other acid. 

2. Close both water gauge valves. 

3. Open top water gauge valve and also pet cock at bottom, 
and blow water out of the glass. Then immediately close the 
top valve and submerge the end of the pet cock in the cup of 
acid solution. A vacuum is at once created in the gauge glass 
which causes the solution in the cup to rush into the glass. 

4. Keep the pet cock immersed and operate the top valve 
slightly opening and closing, alternately expelling and drawing, 
in the solution until all grease, oil or other matter adhering to the 



DATA ON BOILERS 87 

. 

inside of the glass is cut out. Then close pet cock and open 
both water gauge valves. 

It is necessary to have at least one pound of steam pressure 
before commencing the operation, which will take only about 
ten minutes. 

Glasses can be cleaned in this manner, and there is no risk of 
breakage as when the glass is taken out. 

To Find the Strength of a Boiler. — To find the safe 
pressure a cylindrical boiler will bear in pounds per square inch : 
Divide the thickness of the plate in inches by the diameter in 
inches, and multiply the quotient by: 

5,000 for a copper boiler with single riveted shell. 

6,400 for a copper boiler with double riveted shell. 

7,600 for a wrought iron boiler with single riveted shell. 

9,000 for a wrought iron boiler with double riveted shell. 
10,000 for a steel boiler with single riveted shell. 
12,000 for a steel boiler with double riveted shell. 

Care of Boilers. — The following rules have been compiled 
by Henry Diston & Sons from those issued by the various Boiler 
Insurance Companies of this country and Europe. They are 
applicable to all boilers except as otherwise noted. 



Attention Necessary to Secure Safety. 

1. Safety Valves. — Great care should be exercised to see 
that these valves are ample in size and in working order. Over- 
loading or neglect frequently lead to the most disastrous results. 
Safety valves should be tried at least once every day to see that 
they will act freely. 

2. Pressure Gauge. — The steam gauge should stand at zero 
when the pressure is off, and it should show same pressure as the 
safety valve when that is blowing off. If not, then one is wrong, 
and the gauge should be tested by one known to be correct. 

3. Water Level. — The first duty of an engineer before 
starting, or at the beginning of his watch, is to see that the water 
is at the proper height. Do not rely on glass gauges, floats or 
water alarms, but try the gauge cocks. If they do not agree 
with water gauge, learn the cause and correct it. 

4. Gauge Cocks and Water Gauges must be kept clean. 



88 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

• 

Water gauge should be blown out frequently, and the glasses 
and passages to gauges kept clean. The Manchester, England, 
Boiler Association attributes more accidents to inattention to 
water gauges than to all other causes put together. 

5. Feed Pump or Injector. — These should be kept in perfect 
order, and be of ample size. No make of pump can be expected 
to be continuously reliable without regular and careful attention. 
It is always safe to have two means of feeding a boiler. Check 
valves and self-acting feed valves should be frequently examined 
and cleaned. Satisfy yourself frequently that the valve is acting 
when the feed pump is at work. 

6. Low Water. — In case of low water, immediately cover 
the fire with ashes (wet if possible), or any earth that may be 
at hand. If nothing else is handy, use fresh coal or sawdust. 
Draw fire as soon as it can be done without increasing the heat. 
Neither turn on the feed, start or stop engine, or lift safety valve 
until fires are out, and the boiler cooled down. 

7. Blisters and Cracks. — These are liable to occur in the 
best plate iron. When the first indication appears, there must 
be no delay in having it carefully examined and properly cared 
for. 

Fusible Plugs, when used, must be examined when the boiler 
is cleaned, and carefully scraped on both the water and fire 
sides, or they are liable not to act. 

Attention Necessary to Secure Economy. 

8. Cleaning. — All heating surfaces must be kept clean, 
outside and in, or there will be a serious waste of fuel. The 
frequency of cleaning will depend on the nature of fuel and water. 
As a rule, never allow over ^ inch scale or soot to collect on 
surfaces between cleanings. Hand holes should be frequently 
removed and surfaces examined, particularly in case of new 
boiler, until proper intervals have been established by expe- 
rience. 

9. Hot Feed Water. — Cold water should never be fed into 
any boiler when it can be avoided, but when necessary it should 
be caused to mix with the heated water before coming in contact 
with any portion of the boiler. 

10. Foaming. — When foaming occurs in a boiler, checking 
the outflow of steam will usually stop it. If caused by dirty 



DATA ON BOILERS 89 

waters, blowing down and pumping up will generally cure it. 
In case of violent foaming, check the draft and fires. 

11. Air Leaks. — Be sure that all openings for admission of 
air to boiler or flues except through the fire are carefully stopped. 
This is frequently an unsuspected cause of serious waste. 

12. Blowing Off. — If the feed water is muddy or salt, blow 
off a portion frequently, according to condition of water. Empty 
the boiler every week or two, and fill up afresh. When surface 
blowcocks are used, they should be often opened for a few 
minutes at a time. Make sure no water is escaping from the 
blow-off cock when it is supposed to be closed. Blow-off cocks 
and check valves should be examined every time the boiler is 
cleaned. 

Attention Necessary to Secure Durability. 

13. Leaks. — When leaks are discovered, they should be 
repaired as soon as possible. 

14. Blowing Off. — Never empty the boiler while brick- 
work is hot. 

15. Filling Up. — Never pump cold water into a hot boiler. 
Many times leaks, and in shell boilers, serious weakness, and 
sometimes explosions, are the result of such an action. 

16. Dampness. — Take care that no water comes in contact 
with the exterior of the boiler from any cause, as it tends to 
corrode and weaken the boiler. Beware of all dampness in 
seating or coverings. 

17. Galvanic Action. — Examine frequently parts in contact 
with copper or brass where water is present, for signs of corrosion. 
If water is salt or acid, some metallic zinc placed in the boiler will 
usually prevent corrosion, but it will need attention and renewal 
from time to time. 

18. Rapid Firing. — In boilers with thick plates or seams 
exposed to the fire, steam should be raised slowly, and rapid or 
intense firing avoided. With thin water tubes, however, and 
adequate water circulation, no damage can come from this 
cause. 

19. Standing Unused. — If a boiler is not required for some 
time, empty and dry it thoroughly. If this is impracticable, 
fill it quite full of water and put in a quantity of common wash- 
ing soda. External parts exposed to dampness should receive 
a coating of linseed oil. 



90 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

20. General Cleanliness. — All things about the boiler 
room should be kept clean and in good order. Negligence tends 
to waste and decay. 

Why Water Leaves a Boiler.* — There are only three 
reasons why the water in a boiler should get up into the mains. 
In making the statement I have not taken into consideration 
possible accidents such as leaks, burst fittings or pipes from 
settling of buildings or causes of that nature; carelessness of ser- 
vants or others in drawing water from the system for domestic 
purposes; half closed radiator valves causing water to be forced 
into the radiator, or drawn in from the vacuum caused by the 
condensation of steam, etc. I have not taken into consideration 
the fact that supply valves might be left open or might leak and 
flood the system. The statement is based on the supposition 
that the apparatus has been well put up, given ordinarily intelli- 
gent attention and care, and that the conditions are favorable to 
the possibility of its working. 

Water strongly saturated with an alkaline matter, or carrying 
in solution some mineral matter that would cause it to be light 
or foamy, is a very common condition in certain localities. 
Faulty boiler construction resulting in inferior interior water 
circulation is the most serious and as well the hardest condition 
to overcome; in fact, a remedy is not at hand. Yet it may be 
well to name some of the narcotics commonly used: Bleeders, 
drips, rain spouts, increased water column capacity, increased 
boiler capacity, attaching bottom of water column to rear 
of boiler or to return some distance from boiler, and similar 
methods. While some of the above correctives sometimes pro- 
voke a settlement, the case is chronic and can never be associated 
with the convalescent. On account of inferior circulation the 
water is unable to return to the bottom of the boiler or waterways. 

Water Carried by Steam. — The surface of the water may 
not be of sufficient area for the proper liberation of the steam 
from the water, the latter thus being carried up into the mains. 
The most probable reason is that there is no direct waterway 
by which the water can be returned to the bottom of the boiler, 
and the waterways being so small that the little particles of 
water generated into steam fill the waterways, and in their 

* Abstract of a paper read at the recent convention of the representa- 
tives of the Herendeen Mfg. Company, manufacturers of heating boilers, 
Geneva, N. Y., by Edward S. Dean of Illinois. 



DATA ON BOILERS 91 

upward tendencies not only carry the water with them, but 
prevent its return, finally carrying the water into the mains. 
There it is either returned to the boiler through a bleeder, rain- 
spout, drip, or via the main and back through the regular return 
to replenish the boiler. 

Particularly are boilers with single water legs at either side 
of the fire pot bothered thus, and the smaller and longer these 
waterways the more would the boiler be subject to trouble of this 
nature. This trouble is not always apparent in the mains, but 
is sometimes shown by the unsteady water line of the boiler. 
The cause is the same, the remedy similar. The Furman boiler 
is blessed with a large return waterway at either side of either 
fire pot section, and this waterway does not come in contact 
with the direct intense action of the fire from the fire pot. If 
the trouble occurs in a plant with a Furman you can look at 
once for the trouble elsewhere, and it therefore must be in one of 
the other two causes. 

A very common method is to connect all the outlets of the 
boiler to a large common header or pipe, which in turn is used 
as a steam dome and out of which the main supply pipes for the 
job are taken. This large pipe header or dome has attached 
to it from one end or the bottom a drip, bleeder, rain spout, or 
something of this nature, which is attached to the bottom or 
return of the boiler, and through this pipe or drip the water, 
which has been carried out of the boiler, is carried back into 
the boiler, thus completing the circulation of the boiler, as we 
might say. 

Size of Piping for Work in Hand. — The cause of the delivery 
of the steam to and through the mains is unequal pressure — 
that is, steam is forced out of the boiler and into the main because 
the pressure in the main is less than it is in the boiler, and the 
pressure at the far end of the main is the least, there being a 
difference of a fraction of an ounce to upward of a pound in the 
ordinary job when working. The difference will average nearly 
| pound pressure, providing, of course, that the main is of the 
proper size. 

We will assume that a 2-inch main will deliver steam to, or 
carry, only 350 square feet of radiation and maintain in the far 
end a minimum pressure. Now suppose that we add 100 feet 
of radiation to the same 2-inch main, and we find that to deliver 
the steam we will be compelled to increase the boiler pressure 



92 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

in order to force the steam out of the boiler through the main 
and to the radiators. Supposing this pressure needed is 5 
pounds, we find that we can deliver the steam, but we cannot 
retain a pressure in the far end of the main to equal the increased 
boiler pressure, and we also find that the pressure in the far 
end of the main is about the same as with the 350 feet. This 
increased boiler pressure pushes down on the water just as hard 
as it pushes up on the steam, and in the absence of a pressure at 
the far end of the main to equal the boiler pressure, the water is 
driven down in the boiler and up the return pipe until the water 
backs up into the main to such a point as will equalize (nearly) 
the pressure. The result: loss of water from the boiler, water 
hammering, water in the radiators, on the carpets, and the owner 
doesn't pay. Total ignorance of the cause is the reason why a 
great many fitters always place check valves in their returns ; this 
is not a' remedy, but merely a relief in part. 

It is not always a small main pipe, but sometimes trouble 
is due to a gasket having too small a hole, or possibly a valve 
partially closed, or a valve with too small an opening through it, 
or some other obstruction. The trouble of water in the main is 
more apt to appear where the mains are very close to the water 
line than where the main is several feet above the water line of the 
boiler, because it requires less pressure to force the water up 
into the main pipe. The cause is ignorance; the remedy, 
increase capacity of main; the preventative, use main of sufficient 
capacity ; the relief, place a check valve in the return and warm 
up a portion of the radiation at a time. 

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 

Chimneys, their Construction and Importance. — A factor 
of prime importance in any heating system, which is often 
overlooked by the heating contractor, architect, or owner, is the 
chimney flue. 

A chimney flue to effect the best results should be round. 
Next in order of efficiency comes the square flue, while the least 
effective is one of oblong form. The round flue presents an 
amount of friction surface to the smoke and escaping gases 
equal to about Sh times its diameter; the square flue presents 
four times its diameter as friction surface; while the oblong 
flue's friction surface increases beyond that of the square flue 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 93 

in direct proportion to its extent of elongation. As an illus- 
tration: In an 8-inch round flue, the friction surface is 25.13 
inches and contains 50.265 square inches of area. In an 8-inch 
square flue, the friction surface is 32 inches and contains 64 square 
inches of area; while in an oblong flue 4 X 16 inches, the friction 
surface is 40 inches and the area 64 square inches. 

If the square form of flue is desired, the side of the square 
should be at least equal to the diameter of the boiler smoke pipe, 
as the corners of the square flue are of practically no value, for the 
smoke passage, and in very large flues even become a detriment, 
in the way of eddying currents which upset the true course of 
smoke and escaping gases. In other words, the 64 square inches 
in the 8-inch square flue are of no greater value, if as great, for 
the smoke passage, than the 50.265 square inches of the 8-inch 
round flue. 

In an oblong flue, the depth should never be less than 6 to 8 
inches, even for the smallest flues ; and the length not to exceed 
If times the depth. If an oblong flue is unavoidable, better 
results will be obtained if the smoke pipe can enter the flue on the 
narrow side, as this will allow the smoke and escaping gases more 
room in which to change their course from the horizontal smoke 
pipe to the vertical flue. A flue of less than 6 inches depth will 
not allow freedom for this change of direction, which directly 
accounts for the unsuccessful operation of boilers using shallow 
flues, and the blame is often put on the entire system. Be sure 
that the flue is of the proper size and shape, and has a good draft 
before attaching the boiler to it ; for many heating systems, first 
class in other respects, fail to give satisfaction merely on account 
of poor chimney drafts. 

A newly built chimney will not draw perfectly until it is 
thoroughly dried out, which will take a week or two. 

In looking over the chimney and connecting it to the boiler, 
it is well — 

First. To see there are no openings into the boiler flue, either 
above or below the boiler smoke pipe; special care being exercised 
at the base of the flue, that the boiler flue does not connect with 
any other flue in the chimney through the soot pocket or base of 
the flue. 

Second. That the division walls of the chimney, if it contains 
more than one flue, are carried to the top of the chimney, so 
that each flue is independent of the others its entire length. 



94 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Third. That the area of the chimney flue is maintained full 
size its entire length, and is free from obstructions, such as loose 
brick, mortar, etc., that might become lodged in it. 

Fourth. That the chimney extends above the highest point 
of the roof, or other surrounding elevation. This is quite im- 
portant, and failure to observe this rule may be looked to as a 
cause for poor draft. 

Fifth. That the flue is at least 6 or 7 inches in depth, and 
never less in area than the size of the smoke pipe given by the 
boiler manufacturer. 

Sixth. That the boiler sets as near the chimney as possible, 
thus shortening the length of the horizontal smoke pipe. 

Seventh. That the smoke pipe does not project into the 
chimney too far, and thus lessen the area of the flue at this impor- 
tant point, where the smoke leaves the pipe and enters the flue. 

Chimney Flues. — The selection of chimney flues for heating 
boilers must depend upon the judgment of the heating engineer. 
No tabular statements can be guaranteed, but it is believed that the 
table herewith, of Professor R. C. Carpenter, is as reliable as any. 



Direct Radiation.* 



Steam in 
Square Feet. 



250 

500 

750 

1000 

1500 

2000 

3000 

4000 

5000 

6000 

7000 

8000 

9000 

10000 



Water in 

Square 

Feet. 



375 

750 

1150 

1500 

2250 

3000 

4500 

6000 

7500 

9000 

10500 

12000 

13500 

15000 



Height of Chimney Flue. 



20 ft. 


30 ft. 


40 ft. 


50 ft. 


60 ft. 


80 ft. 


7.4 


7 


6.7 


6.4 


6.2 


6 


9.6 


9.2 


8.8 


8.2 


8 


6.6 


11.3 


10.8 


10.2 


9.6 


9.3 


8.8 


12.8 


12 


11.4 


10.8 


10.5 


10 


15.2 


14.4 


13.4 


12.8 


12.4 


11.5 


17.2 


16.3 


15.2 


14.5 


14 


13.2 


20.6 


18.5 


18.2 


17.2 


16.6 


15.8 


23.6 


22.2 


20.8 


19.6 


19 


17.8 


26 


24.6 


23 


21.6 


21 


19.4 


28.4 


26.8 


25 


23.4 


22.8 


21.2 


30.4 


28.8 


27 


25.5 


24.4 


23 


32.4 


30.6 


28.6 


26.8 


26 


24.2 


34 


32.4 


30.4 


28.4 


27.4 


25.6 


37 


34 


32 


30 


28.6 


27 



* When a considerable amount of indirect radiation is to be used, 
increased boiler capacity is necessary, and in many cases such demands 
require a larger chimney flue for same number of square feet of radiation 
used. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



95 



It is necessary that area and height, thickness of walls, general 
structure, and the position of the top outlet with reference to the 
building and other buildings near by, should be carefully noted 
and observed in the selecting or building a flue. 

The figures given under the varying heights of chimneys are 
diameter measurements in inches, or, the side of a square — 
the theory being that the spiral ascending column of smoke and 
gases will make a twelve by twelve inch flue no more extensive in 
practical working area than a twelve-inch round flue. Rect- 
angular shapes may be used if the area is equal and the difference 
in width and length are not extreme. 

A Less Specific Rule for Chimney Flues. — Herewith 
is a table of chimney flue sizes which is commonly used with good 
results. It does not take into consideration varying heights of 
stacks, but is said to be reliable in average conditions. 



Direct Radiation.* 


Size of Flue. 


Steam in 
Square Feet. 


Water in 
Square Feet. 


Round. 


Square. 


250 


400 


8 


8X8 


300 


500 


8 


8X8 


400 


700 


8 


8X8 


500 


850 


10 


8X12 


600 


1000 


10 


8X12 


700 


1200 


10 


8X12 


800 


1350 


12 


12X12 


900 


1500 


12 


12X12 


1000 


1700 


12 


12X12 


1200 


2100 


12 


12X12 


1400 


2400 


14 


12X16 


1600 


2700 


14 


12X16 


1800 


3000 


14 


12X16 


2000 


3400 


14 


12X16 


2200 


3700 


16 


16X16 


3000 


5100 


16 


16X16 


3500 


5900 


18 


16X20 


5000 


8500 


18 


16X20 



* When a considerable amount of indirect radiation is to be used, 
increased boiler capacity is necessary, and in many cases such demands 
require a larger chimney flue for same number of square feet of radiation 
used. 



96 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 









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MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 97 

Injectors, Piping and Operating. 

Steam Pipe. — The steam supply to an Injector should 
always be taken from the dome or highest point of the boiler so 
that the steam will be as dry as possible. The pipe should be 
as large as or larger than the supply connection to the Injector, 
and should be an independent pipe so there will be no cut off to 
the supply. 

Feed Pipe. — The feed or suction pipe should be the full size of 
the supply opening to the Injector, and must be perfectly air-tight. 

Delivery Pipe. — The delivery pipe must be of full size, and 
the check valve have a full opening the size of the pipe. If the 
check valve is too small, or by the accumulation of sediment the 
opening is partly closed, it will prevent the water from being 
delivered into the boiler as fast as the Injector discharges it. 
The result is, a pressure is caused greater than the boiler pressure, 
and will increase until the Injector cannot force any more and 
the feed is broken. 

Failure to Work. — Generally the cause of Injectors failing 
to work is a leak in the suction pipe. This pipe must be abso- 
lutely tight or the Injector will not work. 

If steam and hot water come out of the overflow together, the 
trouble may be due to too high a steam pressure for the lift; 
too hot water supply; or suction pipe clogged. 

If the Injector lifts the water, but does not force it into the 
boiler, the trouble may be a leak in the suction pipe; wet steam; 
not sufficient steam pressure; steam supply pipe riot direct 
from boiler; delivery pipe clogged; or the check valve not 
lifting high enough or not at all. 

If the Injector refuses to lift the water, the trouble may be 
due to too low a steam pressure for the lift; suction pipe clogged; 
water supply too hot; wet steam; overflow valve stuck or over- 
flow pipe too small ; or a leak in the suction pipe. 

Range of Injectors. — The lowest steam pressure at which 
an Injector will start, and the highest at which it will work, is 
termed the " range " of the Injector, and this varies with the 
vertical lift and the temperature of the feed water. 

Different manufacturers therefore vary as to the starting-point 
in their Injectors, aiming to cover the range they deem the most 
desirable. Nearly all have adopted about 25 pounds on a 
2-foot lift as the lowest starting-point. 



98 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The range of Injectors is approximately as follows: 

With Supply Water at 60° F. 
On a 2-ft. lift will start at 15 lbs. steam. 

will work to 155 lbs. steam. 
On an 8-ft. lift will start at 25 lbs. steam. 

will work to 135 lbs. steam. 
On a 14-ft. lift will start at 40 lbs. steam. 

will work to 110 lbs. steam. 
On a 20-ft. lift will start at 55 lbs. steam. 

will work to 85 lbs. steam. 

With Feed Water at 75° F. 
On a 2-ft. lift will start at 15 lbs. steam. 

will work to 145 lbs. steam. 
On an 8-ft. lift will start at 25 lbs. steam. 

will work to 125 lbs. steam. 
On a 15-ft. lift will start at 45 lbs. steam. 

will work to 85 lbs. steam. 
On a 20-ft. lift will start at 55 lbs. steam. 

will work to 75 lbs. steam. 

With Feed Water at 100° F. 
On a 2-ft. lift will start at 20 lbs. steam. 

will work to 120 lbs. steam. 
On a 10-ft. lift will start at 35 lbs. steam. 

will work to 90 lbs. steam. 
On a 15-ft. lift will start at 45 lbs. steam. 

will work to 70 lbs. steam. 

Ejectors. 

Ejectors work on the same principle as Injectors, except that 
they have no pressure to counteract or overcome, and can there- 
fore lift the water to a considerable height, and are often used 
to elevate water from pits, mines, quarries, etc., or to fill tanks 
above the water level. 

Connecting and Operating Ejectors. — Connect the Ejec- 
tor in any position to suit the convenience of piping. Where 
water is to be forced to a greater height than 40 feet above the 
Ejector, place the Ejector not to exceed 10 feet above the water 
level. Where the Ejector has to be placed at a greater distance 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 99 

above the water level, and the water is to be forced to a greater 
height above the Ejector, use one size larger pipe on the delivery. 
The following table gives the heights to which Ejectors will 
lift under different pressures of steam. 

With 25 Pounds Steam — 

Lifts 10 feet and elevates above itself 11 feet. 
u 5 u u u 13 a 

With 40 Pounds Steam — 

Lifts 22 feet and elevates above itself 20 feet. 
a 15 a a a 27 " 

a 5 a a a 29 a 

With 60 Pounds Steam — 

Lifts 20 feet and elevates above itself 36 feet. 
a 15 a a a 43 a 

a 1Q a a tt 43 a 

tt 5 a a a 5Q „ 

With 80 Pounds Steam — 

Lifts 18 feet and elevates above itself 55 feet. 
u 15 a a a 59 a 

tt 10 tt a a 61 a 

a 5 a a a 66 a 

With 100 Pounds Steam — 

Lifts 17 feet and elevates above itself 61 feet. 
it 15 a a a 63 a 

a 1Q a a a 66 a 

" 5 " " " 73 " 

With 125 Pounds Steam — 

Lifts 15 feet and elevates above itself 76 feet. 
a 1Q a u a 83 tt 

tt 5 tt u a 90 tt 

Cellar Drainers. 

Cellar Drainers work on the same principle as Injectors and 
Ejectors, except that water, under pressure, is used as their source 
of power. They are made to operate automatically as follows: 

As soon as the water to be removed accumulates, a float ball 
rises and opens the valve admitting the water under pressure 



100 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

through the supply pipe, which causes a vacuum or suction, and 
draws the accumulated water forcing it into and through the 
discharge pipe, continuing until the water is lowered and the 
float ball falls and shuts off the water supply, and ceases pump- 
ing, thus starting and stopping automatically as the water 
accumulates to be removed. The Cellar Drainer can also be 
operated with steam in the place of water, and then takes the 
form of the Ejector. 

Installing the Cellar Drainer. — A suitable depression 
of 18 inches or more below the level of the place to be drained 
having been made, if in soil or sand and intended for permanent 
use, should be lined with brick, cement or wood, to prevent 
caving in (or with a small size drainer an oil barrel sawed in 
two, with a few auger holes in the sides, will answer the purpose), 
and the Cellar Drainer placed therein. Connections are then 
made to a supply pipe and a discharge pipe. The supply pipe 
being connected to the service pipe or tank, or to any pipe 
conducting water under pressure, is then connected to the valve. 
The discharge pipe is connected to the Cellar Drainer and 
carried to the point of discharge. Should this be in a sewer, tide 
or river water, a check valve should be placed in the discharge 
pipe to prevent outside water from backing up to the Cellar 
Drainer. 

The valve will regulate the supply of water under pressure, 
shutting off the supply automatically when not in operation, but 
opening as soon as the water to be removed accumulates. The 
cesspool should be covered to keep out dirt and rubbish. 

Cellar Drainers will lift water up to about 12 feet, and for every 
foot of lift should have 5 pounds pressure on the water supply. 
Thus Cellar Drainers will lift water as follows: 



To raise water 








1 ft. high, it requires 


from 4 


to 5 lbs. pressure, 


2 ft. " " 


a 


" 8 


u 1Q a 


3 ft. " " 


a 


" 12 


u 15 u 


4 ft. " " 


a 


" 16 


it 20 u 


5 ft. " " 


a 


" 20 


"25 " 



and so on in proportion up to 12 feet in height. 

When connecting up a Drainer, be sure and blow out the 
supply pipes, so that no dirt or scales can lodge in front of the 
jet, which would prevent the Drainer from working properly; 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



101 



also have the discharge pipe laid on a descent, after raising the 
pipe to the full height of the lift, so as not to have the body 
of water which is lying in the discharge pipe forced against the 
Drainer, but have it so that the water which is raised to the 
proper height can run off itself from that point; or if the dis- 
charge can be carried downward after passing the highest point, 
the discharge will then form a siphon and assist the Drainer 
with its work. 

Hydraulic Ram. 

The Hydraulic Ram is a mechanical device or engine, which 
operates automatically, for raising a small quantity of water to 
a desired height, by using the force or power obtained by the 
weight or fall of a large body of water from a less height than that 
to which the water is elevated. Thus by means of the Hydraulic 
Ram water can be raised to a much greater height than the 
source of supply. 



S3 



Elevation Feet 



Method No.l 




Inch.Lever Gate Valve 



Water Level 



Fall 



Feet 



Inch Drain Pipe Feet long 



-^S> 






Method No.2 
Water Level 



Elevation Fee 




Inch Lever GateValve 
Fig. 55. Method of Securing Fall for Hydraulic Rams. 

The height to which water can be raised depends on the 
amount of fall from the source of supply to the Ram. The rais- 
ing power is given by the elastic reaction of a confined volume 
of air, which is compressed by the falling water. 

Fig. 55 shows two different methods of securing fall for water 
to operate Hydraulic Rams. 



102 



MECHANICS 7 READY REFERENCE 



Description and Operation of the Hydraulic Ram. — 
As Hydraulic Rams all operate on the same principle, the fol- 
lowing description of the Rife Hydraulic Ram is given. 

* The Hydraulic Ram has been used in a small way ever since 
its invention by Joseph Michael de Montgolfier, in 1796, to whom 
credit is given for having first perfected the automatic machine. 

John Whitehurst, of Derby, England, is said, however, to have 
understood the principle as early as 1775, but his machine 
required an attendant who opened and closed the waste valve by 
hand. 

Hydraulic Rams are in quite common use, but they are practi- 
cally all of small size, designed to raise but small quantities of 
water, and that to small heights. f 




Fig. 56. 



Section of Rife Hydraulic Ram for Pumping Pure Water, Using 
Impure Water for Power. 



The Rife Hydraulic Engine Co., New York City, however, is 
manufacturing an improved Ram, which is of sufficient size and 
capacity to deserve the name of engine. A section of the double- 
acting or double-supply type, to be described later, is shown in 
Fig. 56. 

* Engineering News. 

t The Columbia Engineering Works, Portland, Oregon, now manufac- 
ture a 48-inch Ram, which they claim with a drive of 19,000 cubic feet of 
water per minute from a height of 50 feet, will raise 6000 cubic feet of water 
per minute to a height of 200 feet, and at Sunnyside, Wash., a battery of 
11 rams lift water to a height of 147 feet, the supply having a fall of 
39 feet. (Author.) 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 103 

Considering it first without any regard to the double-supply 
feature, suppose the opening at H to be closed. The valve at 
B being open, the water from the source of supply at more or less 
elevation above the machine flows down the drive pipe A and 
escapes through the opening at B until the pressure due to the 
increasing velocity of the water is sufficient to close the valve B. 
At the moment when the flow through this valve ceases, the 
inertia of the moving column of water produces the so-called 
ramming stroke, which opens the valve at C, and compresses 
the air in the air chamber D until the pressure of the air plus the 
pressure due to the head of the water in the main is sufficient 
to overcome the inertia of the moving column of water in the 
drive pipe. This motion may be likened to the oscillations in a 
U-tube. At this instant the column of water in the drive pipe 
has come to a rest, and the air pressure being greater than the 
static head alone, the direction of the motion of the moving 
column is reversed and the valve C is closed. The water in the 
drive pipe is then moving backward, and with the closing of 
C a tendency to a vacuum is produced at the base of the drive 
pipe; this negative pressure causes the valve B to open again, 
completing the circle of operations. At the moment of negative 
pressure the little shifting valve E admits a small quantity of air, 
and at the following stroke this passes into the air chamber, 
which would otherwise gradually fill with water, the air being 
gradually taken up by water. 

In many machines the mistake is made of making the waste 
valve B sufficiently heavy to overcome the static head of water 
in the drive pipe. In fact, most writers on this subject, includ- 
ing the Encyclopedia Britannica, state that the weight of the 
waste valve B must be greater than the pressure of the statical 
head of water on its under side so that it may open when the 
column of water comes to rest. In the machine which we are 
describing, this would be practically impossible on account of the 
large area of the opening at B. 

In this machine the valve B is made as light as is consistent 
with the necessary strength; the negative pressure at the end of 
the stroke is relied upon to open the valve. With the largest 
size of these machines this valve is eighteen inches in diameter, 
and with a head of eight feet, which is a common head for use 
with hydraulic rams, the static pressure on the under side of this 
valve is eight hundred and eighty-three pounds; it can be seen 



104 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

that the great shock of a valve of this weight would rapidly 
destroy the valve and its seat. 

The waste mechanism of the Rife Engine consists of a large 
port with a flat ample opening and a rather large rubber valve 
with a balance counterweight and spring seating, removing 
almost entirely the jar at closing. The valve C in the air chamber 
consists of a rubber disk with gridiron ports and convex seats, 
fastened at the center and lifting at the circumference, as shown 
by Fig. 56. The effort is to transfer the shock from the power of 
the driving water through the air cushion with the smallest 
amount of friction and jar. 

After closing the valve C the pressure of the air in the air 
chamber forces the water in the air chamber out into the delivery 
pipes. 

With the Rife Engine the manufacturers claim to elevate 
water 30 feet for every foot of fall in the driving head. The 
machine is built in capacities as high as 150,000 gallons per day, 
and the efficiency of eighty-two per cent is claimed. 

The question of efficiency of hydraulic rams has been much 
discussed, and such authorities as Rankine and D'Aubisson differ 
considerably in their calculations. The Rife Hydraulic Engine 
Company uses Rankine 's formula in calculating efficiency, which is 

E- qh 



(Q~Z)H 



where Q is the quantity of water flowing per second in the drive 
pipe ; q, the quantity flowing per second to the stand-pipe through 
the discharge pipe; H, the height from the escape valve to the 
level of the reservoir which feeds the drive pipe ; and h, the dif- 
ference in the level of the water-supply reservoir and the water 
in the stand-pipe. D'Aubisson states the formula for efficiency 
as 

q (H + K) 

E — • 

QH 

D'Aubisson's is the correct one, considering the mechanism as 
a machine receiving energy at one end and delivering it at the 
other, while if the machine is considered as elevating water 
only from the one reservoir to the other, Rankine's formula is 
the correct one to use. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



105 



When a pipe is attached at H (Fig. 56), the engine is termed 
double-acting; spring water, or that which is purer than the 
water used to drive the engine, may then be supplied through 
/, and by a proper adjustment of the relative flow of the impure 
driving water, and that of the pure supply, the engine may be 
made to deliver only the pure water into the mains. This 
method is used where the supply of pure water is limited. 



SIZES OF PIPES FOR HYDRAULIC RAMS. 



Quantity of Water Furnished per 
Minute by Supply to which Ram - 
is Adapted. 


Length of Pipe. 


Size of Pipe, 
Inches. 


Drive. 


Discharge. 


Drive. 


Dis- 
charge. 


3 quarts to 2 gallons per 

minute 

1J gallons to 4 gallons per 

minute 

3 gallons to 7 gallons per 

minute 

6 gallons to 14 gallons per 

minute 

12 gallons to 25 gallons per 

minute 

20 gallons to 40 gallons per 

minute 

25 gallons to 75 gallons per 
minute 


25 
. to 50 
feet. 


Any 
length 
desired. 


! 
l 

11 

2 

2* 

2| 
4 


f 
1 
1 
* 

1 

H 

2 



If the pipes are lead, the drive pipe should be of the " A " grade 
for diameters up to 2 inches. The discharge pipe, if lead, should 
be of the " B " grade for rises of 50 feet or less, and " A " grade 
for rises between 50 and 100 feet. For falls greater than 10 feet 
and rises of more than 100 feet, the pipe must be heavier than 
just given. The length of the drive pipe should be from 25-50 
feet. If discharge pipe is very long (say one-fourth mile), a 
larger size than given in the table should be used. With a given 
supply of water under a great fall, a ram need not be as large as 
for the same quantity of water under a less fall. When large 
quantities of water are to be raised, it is better to increase the 
number of rams in preference to having one of very large capacity. 



106 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Several rams may be set so as to deliver into one discharge 
pipe, each having a separate drive pipe. 

To obtain maximum efficiency of ram with any fall, the dash 
valve should be adjusted to close at the instant the water in the 
drive pipe has attained its maximum velocity. 

Rules for Regulating and Care of Gas Stoves. 

The proper way to adjust or regulate an atmospheric gas 
burner is to open wide the air mixer, and then cut down the 
gas supply until there is just pressure enough to prevent the gas 
from lighting back in the mixer, then adjust the air supply so as 
to give the proper flame. The proper flame is one in which each 
separate jet at each hole seems to be burning alone by itself, and 
not touching any of the jets adjoining, and burning with a 
greenish cone in the center of the jet, the cone having the appear- 
ance of a swirling motion. 

To clean the burner when incrusted with dirt and grease: 
boil it in strong lye water, or in bad cases heat to a red heat 
over a fire. 

In adjusting the burner, be sure to see there is no dirt or lint 
in the mixer, to obstruct the flow of air. 

The tops of gas stoves when dirty can be cleaned with gasoline 
and a stiff brush, but extreme care must be taken that there is 
no fire in the room, and the room must be thoroughly ventilated 
after using the gasoline before lighting the gas. 

Flange Connections for Heavy Pipe. 

Fig. 57 shows several different styles of flanges now made for 
heavy pipe. 1 is the corrugated face flange made by scoring the 
face of the flange with a series of concentric rings about ^ inch 
deep. 

This method is not well adapted to thin copper gaskets or 
to rubber gaskets less than ^ inch in thickness. If rubber 
gaskets are used with this flange they should be about | inch 
thick. 

2 is the ordinary smooth-faced flange with which copper or 
rubber gaskets are used. 

3 is the male and female faced flanges which are made with 
recessed and projecting faces, which fit into each other. The 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 107 

male face projects from T \ to \ of an inch, according to the size 
of pipe, and extends out from the inner circle of pipe about 
half way to the bolt holes. 

The female face is recessed from \ to T 3 g of an inch in depth, 
according to size, and is made sufficiently large in diameter to 
receive the male projection without binding or throwing the 
bolts out of true. 

This method forms a very reliable joint, as the ends of the pipe 
bear on the gasket, thus forming a perfect joint and keeping the 
steam, water or air from reaching the joints where the flanges 
are made on the pipe. It is also impossible to blow out the gas- 
ket, as it is held firmly in the recess, and the contact is so liberal 
that there is no danger of the gasket crushing or squeezing out 
when subjected to extreme heat or pressure. 

The only serious objection to this style of flange is the difficulty 
of opening the line in case it is necessary to renew a gasket or 
replace a fitting, valve or section of pipe. 

4 is the tongued and grooved faced flanges, which are similar 
to the male and female, with the exception that the projections 
and recesses do not extend to the inner circle of the pipe, but are 
very narrow and are situated midway between the bolt holes and 
the inner circle of the pipe, thus forming only a limited space 
for the gasket, which in consequence is easily crushed or squeezed 
out of the recess when placed under severe working condi- 
tions. Neither does the gasket cover the ends of the pipe, this 
omission, of course, allowing the steam, water or air to come in 
constant contact with the joints where flanges are made on the 
pipes. 

Flanges faced in this manner are subjected to severe strains 
when the bolts are drawn up, owing to the narrow contact 
between the faces, and the me.thod has no advantages not pos- 
sessed by the male and female joint, and many disadvantages. 
The same objection applies to this style of joint as to the male 
and female, when it comes to repairs. 

5 shows flanges with smooth raised faces, which are made 
with ^ or ^ inch raised faces inside the bolt holes, and the 
projecting faces are turned off smooth. 

This is a popular method in some parts of the country, and is 
frequently used for working pressures up to 250 pounds. 

It is especially suited for corrugated copper or thin rubber 
gaskets. 



108 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



6 shows the raised faced flanges for grinding, which are made 
with ^ or ^ inch raised faces inside the bolt holes. These 
faces are finished very smooth in the shops, ready for grinding. 
When the pipe flanges are put to use they are ground in place by 
the use of a special grinding or face plate, using energy and 
oil as a grinding mixture. 




Fig. 57. Methods of Facing Extra Heavy Companion Flanges. 



7 shows flanges with spot faced bolt holes, which are made by 
facing off around the bolt holes on the back side of the flange, 
where the nut or head of the bolt bears. This is done to give 
the nuts or heads of the bolts a more true, firm bearing than could 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 109 

be obtained on the rough casting. It is useless expense, however, 
to spot face the bolt holes on the flanges, unless the bearing 
faces of both the heads and nuts of the bolts are faced true 
also. 

8 shows flanges with calking recesses which are made by cutting 
a recess in the hubs on the back on the flanges. This recess is 
\ inch in depth, \ inch wide at the top and ^ of an inch wide at 
the bottom. It can be applied to extra heavy flanges in sizes 
from 2 to 24 inches. Flanges so fitted are \ inch higher than the 
regular flanges. When this flange is used for cold water the 
recesses are filled with lead, which is calked in firmly to prevent 
the flanges from leaking where they are made on the pipe. When 
these flanges are used on steam, the recesses are filled with 
soft copper, which is calked in firmly to keep the flanges from 
leaking. 

Thawing Frozen Water Pipes with Electricity. 

Fig. 58 shows an electric thawing apparatus manufactured 
by The Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co. It is 
described as follows: 

For heavy work, such as street thawing, a specially designed 
choke coil is used, which is connected in series with the primary 
of a 2200-volt, 60-cycle, ordinary lighting transformer of from 
15 to 25 kilowatt capacity. The primary voltage may be varied 
from 50, 60, 75, 87, and 95 per cent of the full line voltage by 
simply changing the position of plugs in the choke coil. Con- 
nections are made to two hydrants or fire plugs, or to one hydrant 
and the pipe to be thawed at a point beyond the frozen part. 
The choke coil occupies a space of 16 X 16 inches and weighs 
200 pounds. This outfit may be transported either in a sleigh or 
wagon, or upon a truck. 

For pipes in dwellings and other light service the thawing 
transformer illustrated herewith is used. This transformer is 
intended for use on 2200-volt, 60-cycle circuits. It has a varia- 
tion in secondary voltage of from 55 to 53 volts, and will main- 
tain a current of 100 amperes for one-half hour without undue 
heating. For thawing service pipes the usual method is to 
connect one terminal to a house faucet and the other to the 
nearest hydrant, or a faucet in a neighboring house. For thaw- 
ing street mains, two hydrants may be used. This transformer 



110 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



weighs only a hundred pounds and may be carried by one 
man. 

The time required for thawing, as well as the voltage or current 
necessary, vary with the size, location and length of pipe, as 
well as with the atmospheric temperature. Large pipes require 
less voltage to force the same current through a given length, 
but require more current to thaw. Pipe imbedded in solidly 
frozen ground naturally requires a longer time and more current 
than a pipe frozen only a part of its length. 




Fig. 58. Electric Thawing Machine. 



Five hundred amperes is usually sufficient for pipes up to five 
inches diameter, while 12-inch mains may require a thousand 
amperes. For small pipes a much lower current is sufficient. 
In practice it is found that a small current for a long period of 
time will do the work that a large current will do in a short time, 
and with less chance of injury to the pipe. Unless great care is 
exercised in making connections to the piping system, faucets, 
hydrants or pipes may be burned and disfigured by the heat 
developed by the heavy current passing through poor con- 
nections. 

Following is a tabulation compiled from actual thawing 
operations, showing the current, voltage and time required to 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



111 



thaw different sizes and lengths of iron pipe under varying con- 
ditions : 



Diameter in 
Inches. 


Length in 
Feet. 


Amperes. 


Volts. 


Time Re- 
quired. 










5 min. 


h 


50 


250 


20 


15 " 


h 


70 


300 


16 


45 " 


h 


100 


150 


20 


45 " 


f 


80 


300 


110 


23 " 


f 


100 


135 


55 


10 " 


I 


240 


250 


52 


30 " 


i 


380 


300 


30 


10 " 


1 


45 


140 


220 


17 " 


l 


250 


500 


50 


20 " 


1 


600 


60 


50 


1 hr. 


l 


700 


175 


55 


5 " 


2 


20 


2000 


6 


3 " 


2 


50 


500 


50 


2 " 


2 


60 


160 


50 


4 " 


2 


300 


250 


52 


2 " 30 " 


4 


800 


300 


50 


3 " 


6 


400 


800 


110 


2 " 10 " 



The cost to the customer of thawing by electricity varies in 
different cities from five to fifteen dollars, when a price is made 
for the job. In some cities the cost is based upon the time 
required for the operation, a minimum charge being made for the 
first hour and a fixed charge for each additional hour. 



To Read an Electric Meter. 

Fig. 59 is a facsimile of the dial plate of a Thomson Recording 
Watt Meter. The figures under each dial represent the amount 
of a complete revolution of the hand of that dial. 

A complete revolution of a hand of any dial is represented by 
one of the sub-divisions of the next dial to the left. Thus each 
sub-division of the lower right hand dial represents 100, and one 
complete revolution of the hand of that dial represents 1,000, 
and is registered by the next dial to the left and represented 
by one of its sub-divisions, and so on through the series of 
dials. 

The first dial, or the one at the extreme right, reads 700 ; the 
second dial indicates 9000; the third dial indicates 90,000, the 



112 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



indicator being on 0, but as the second dial reads 9000 and has 
not completed its revolution the third dial must be read 9000. 




Fig. 59. Dial Plate of Electric Meter. 

The fourth dial is not counted, for until the third dial is read 
100,000 the figure 1 in the fourth dial can not be used. Thus 
we have the reading of the dial : — 

700 from the first dial. 
9,000 from the second dial. 
90,000 from the third dial. 

Total 99,700 

Or reading the dials from right to left and putting the figures 
down right to left the reading will be the same. 

To obtain the correct reading of the meter, multiply by the 
factor given on the dial plate. 



Water Meters, to Read, Test, etc. 

Fig. 60 and 61 are facsimiles of the dial plate of a Crown meter. 
They register cubic feet, one cubic foot being 7 t 4 q 8 o U. S. gallons, 
and are read the same way as explained for the reading of the 
electric meter. 

If the pointer be between two figures, the lesser must always be 
taken. When a pointer is so near a figure that it seems to indi- 
cate it exactly, look at the circle next lower in number, and, if 
the pointer in that circle has passed "0" then the count should 
be read for the figure indicated by the higher circle. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



113 



If the first circle is marked " 100 " it is necessary to add 
one cipher for the 10's place. Each division of any circle stands 
for j 1 ^ of the whole number indicated by that circle. 

For example, let it be supposed that the pointers stand as in 
Fig. 60 then the reading would be 94,450 cubic feet. The figures 
are omitted from the dial marked " One " because they represent 
but tenths of one cubic foot, and hence are unimportant. From 
the dial marked " 10 " we get 0; from the next dial marked 
" 100 " we get 5, and from the next dial marked " 1000 " we 
get 4; from the next marked " 10,000 " we also get 4; from the 
next marked " 100,000 " we get the figure 9. Placing the figures 
as we have taken them from right to left we get the reading 
94,450. 




Fig. 60. Dial of Water Meter, Reading 94,450 Cubic Feet. 



The correct reading of Fig. 61 is 91,692,480 cubic feet. As the 
lowest circle in this dial begins with 100, it is necessary to add 
one " " for the 10's place. 

How to Test Meters. — Whenever possible, all meters 
should be tested by weighing the water, allowing 62| pounds to 
the foot. 



114 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



It is necessary to run at least one complete revolution of the 
first circle of the meter dial in all tests, as the divisions in the 
circle may not be graduated exactly. 

When it is necessary to make a series of runs to complete one 
revolution of the first circle, the total weight of the several runs 
should be added, and in no case should sub-divisions of the circle 
be used to calculate the accuracy of the meter. 




Fig. 61. Dial of Water Meter, Reading 91,692,480 Cubic Feet. 



When testing a meter, the reducing faucet should be placed 
on the outlet side of a meter, thus maintaining a pressure on the 
meter and making the conditions of test similar to that of actual 
service. 

When competitive tests are to be made of several meters, each 
meter should be tested for accuracy before being placed in service, 
and the same water should flow through all the meters, reversing 
their order whenever removed for additional tests. 

Instructions for Setting Meters. — In setting a meter in 
position, let it be plumb, and properly secured to remain so. 
It should be well protected from frost. 

If used in connection with a steam boiler, or under any other 
conditions where it is exposed to a back pressure of steam or 
hot water, it must be protected by a check valve, placed between 
the outlet of the meter and the vessel it supplies. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 115 

It is absolutely necessary to blow out the supply pipe before 
setting a new meter, so that, if there be any accumulation of 
sand, gravel, etc., in it, the same may be expelled, and thus pre- 
vented from entering the meter. Avoid using red lead in making 
joints. It is liable to work into the meter and cause much 
annoyance by clogging the piston. 

Properties of Lead.* 

Lead is a bluish gray metal. 

Does not crystallize readily. When refined lead is poured at 
the correct temperature into a warm mould and allowed to cool, 
fern-like crystalline aggregates appear at the surface. 

It is the heaviest of all metals. 

Specific gravity 11.37 (Reichs) for pure lead at 0° C. (water 
at 4° C. being unity). Roberts- Austen gives as specific gravity 
of solid lead 11.40; of liquid lead 10.65 and 10.67. The specific 
gravity will vary slightly according as it is cooled quickly or 
slowly, hammered or rolled. 

Commercial lead has a lower specific gravity than 11.37 on 
account of the impurities contained in it. 

Lead is very soft, especially when allowed to cool and solidify 
slowly. 

Lead is very malleable and ductile. 

Fracture of lead is hackly when broken cold, columnar when 
hot. 

In the form of filings it becomes a solid mass if subjected to a 
pressure of 13 tons to the square inch and liquefies at 2 J times this 
pressure (Roberts- Austen). 

Oxidation occurs slowly in dry air, the oxide forming a pro- 
tecting coating over the surface. 

Lead undergoes no change in perfectly dry air, nor in water 
that is free from air. 

If melted in contact with air it oxidizes and becomes covered 
with an iridescent pellicle said to be the suboxide Pb 2 0; this 
gradually changes to the oxide PbO, and if the heating to from 
300° to 450° C. be prolonged sufficiently the red oxide Pb 3 4 is 
obtained. 

The other two oxides which lead forms are the sesquioxide 
Pb 2 3 and the peroxide Pb0 2 . 

* Catalogue of Colwell Lead Company. 



116 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Lead melts at about 625° F. (330° C.) and softens and becomes 
pasty at about 617° F. (Kent.) 

Lead absorbs in fusing 5.4 metric thermal units per kilogramme. 

Lead is readily dissolved in water containing carbonic acid 
or salts of nitric acid; the solution is poisonous. 

Lead boils at between 1450° and 1600° C. 

Lead cannot be distilled. 

Lead emits a vapor at a bright red heat of almost T ^ of its 
weight per hour. 

Latent heat of lead is 5.369. 

Atomic weight 206.9. 

Expansion at ordinary temperatures. 

Coefficient for 1° F., 0.00001571. 

Total between 32° and 212° F. Coeff. = 0.002828. 

Coefficient of cubical dilation for 1°C; 0.000089. 

Linear coefficient about J qf the cubical. 

Heat conducting power of lead is about 85. (Weidemann & 
Franz.) 

Specific heat between 10° and 100° C. is 0.0314, with silver as 
100, the conductivity for heat at 12° C. is 8.5, and for electricity 
10.7. 

Breaking strength in tons per square inch (cast), lead .81, 
sheet lead .86, lead pipe 1.00. 

Average ultimate tensile strength for cast lead 1700 to 2400 
pounds per square inch; for lead wire 1200 to 1600; for lead pipe 
1600 to 1700. 

Average crushing load per square inch (cast) 7350 pounds. 

Shrinkage of castings in 1 foot ^ inch. 

Tensile resistance 2240 pounds. 

Safe working tension 370. 

Lead is almost devoid of elasticity. 

Sheet lead has a tenacity or resistance to tearing by direct pull 
of 3300 pounds per square inch. 

Properties of Tin. 

Tin when pure has a specific gravity of 7.28 to 7.4, the purest 
being the lightest. 
Atomic weight is 119. 
Coefficient of expansion is .000023. 
Melting point is 443° F. (232° C). 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 117 

Boils at a white heat. 

Specific heat is .0562. 

Latent heat of fusion is 25.65 B.T.U. per pound. 

Conductivity is low. 

Oxidizes slowly in the air at ordinary temperatures. 

Burns quite freely at a white heat and with a white flame. 

Exposed to extreme cold it becomes crystalline. 

Breaking strength in tons per square inch for cast tin, 2. 

Heat conducting power, 14.5. 

Weight per cubic foot, 459 pounds. 

Average ultimate tensile strength, 3500 pounds .per square 
inch. 

Average crushing load per square inch cast tin, 15,500 
pounds. 

Formula and Rules for Lead Pipe. — To find the thickness 
of a lead pipe when the head is known: 

Rule. — Multiply the head in feet by size of pipe wanted, 
expressed decimally, and divide by 750 ; the quotient will 
give the thickness required in one-hundredths of an inch. 
(Kent). 

Example. — Required thickness of \ inch pipe for head of 
25 feet. Thickness equals 25 X 0.50 -s- 750 = .16 of an inch. 

To compute maximum or bursting pressure that may be borne 
by a lead pipe. 

Multiply the tensile resistance of the metal in pounds per 
square inch by twice thickness of pipe and divide the product 
by internal diameter, both in inches. (Colwell Lead Co.) 

Example. — What is the bursting pressure of lead pipe 3 inches 
in diameter, .5 inch thick? (See table of properties, p. 116, 
for tensile resistance.) 

2240C5x2)^2|0^ 74661bs _ 

To ascertain the weight of lead pipe, diameter and thickness 
of metal being given. (Winslow.) 

Rule. — Multiply the square of its exterior diameter in 
inches by the weight of 12 cylindrical inches, then multiply the 
square of its interior diameter in inches by the same factor, sub- 
tracting the product of the latter from that of the former; the 
remainder will be the weight. 



118 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The weight of 12 cylindrical inches (1 foot long and 1 inch 
diameter) of lead is 3.8697 pounds. 

Example. — Required the weight of a lead pipe 1200 feet 
long, | inch outside diameter, ^ inch inside diameter. 

£ X | =f| =0.765625. 

A** = -ih = 0.316406. 

0.765625 - 0.316406 = 0.449219 X 3.8697 X 1200 = 2086 
pounds. 

Lead Memorandum. — Joints in lead pipe require a pound of 
solder for every inch in diameter. 

For flashings use 4 pound sheet lead. 

For hips and ridges use 6 pound sheet lead. 

For roofs and gutters use 7 pound sheet lead. 

Cubic foot of lead weighs 711 pounds. 



ounces. 



Sheet lead. Pounds per square foot X .016 = thickness in 
decimals of an inch. 

All lead traps and bends should be of the same thickness and 
weight as their corresponding pipe branches. 

A fodder of lead equals 91^ cwt. 

Lead rolled 1 inch thick by 1 foot square weighs an average of 
60 pounds. 

Stowage capacity required per ton of lead 4 cubic feet. 

Effects of Acids and Other Chemicals on Lead.* — 
Sulphuric Acid. The purer the lead the less will it be attacked 
by pure or nitrous sulphuric acid up to about 400° F., the highest 
temperature employed under normal conditions in concen- 
trating pans ; above 400° F. the action becomes stronger and at 
about 468° F. the lead is dissolved. Concentrated nitrous 
sulphuric acid acts at all temperatures more powerfully than 
pure sulphuric acid, and the effect is greater in the presence of 
air. Dilute nitrous sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.72 
to 1.76 is not as powerful as the pure acid, although if the dilution 
be continued beyond this point the power increases again instead 
of diminishing. Boiling sulphuric acid of specific gravity 1.84 
acts severely on lead and fuming acid still more so. 

Jounge found that a rough surface was more readily corroded 
by nitrous sulphuric acid than a smooth surface, and the greater 
the content of nitrogen oxides in the acid the more the lead is 
attacked. 

* Catalogue of the Colwell Lead Company, New York. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 119 

Organic Acids. — Acetic, tartaric and citric acids attack lead 
in contact with air. 

Nitric acid dissolves lead, forming nitrate of lead. This acid 
acts very energetically when dilute, but more slowly when con- 
centrated, owing to the nitrate of lead being insoluble in strong 
nitric acid. 

Hydrochloric acid has practically no action on lead. Boil- 
ing concentrated hydrochloric and sulphuric acid of 66° F., or 
specific gravity of 1.77°, dissolve it slowly. 

Aqua regia converts lead into a chloride. 

Arsenic or arsenious acid unites with lead, yielding arsenite 
or arsenide of lead. 

Peat acids in water rapidly dissolve lead. 

Chlorate of potash dried upon lead covered tables will be 
found to contain traces of lead. 

Gases of a properly worked sulphuric acid plant have a very 
mild action upon the sheet lead of which the chambers are built, 
and when any severe action takes place some abnormal condition 
is sure to have been the cause. 

Chlorine does not attack lead to any serious extent, but when 
chlorine is accompanied by traces of hydrochloric gas the damage 
is often extensive. 

Lime wash upon lead after having dried helps chlorine to 
form the purple oxide of lead. This shortens the life of the lead, 
and should not be used on the outside of bleaching powder 
chambers. 

Meaning of Horse Power. 

The measurement of a horse's power for work was first ascer- 
tained by Watt, the father of the modern steam engine, and he 
expressed this in terms that hold to this day. He experimented 
with a great number of brewery horses to satisfy himself that 
his unit of measurement for work was correct. After many 
trials he found that the average horse was doing work equal to 
that required to raise 330 pounds of weight 100 feet high in one 
minute or 33,000 pounds one foot high in one minute; so he 
called this one horse power. 

This work, however, is not continuous, for the horse would 
have to back up after each pull to lower the line of the pulley, 
and thus he would work half the time in pulling 330 pounds in 
the air at the rate of 100 feet in a minute, and the other half 



120 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



of the time in slacking up the rope. Consequently no horse can 
actually perform continuously what is generally called one horse 
power. 

There is no horse that could tug at a rope for eight hours a 
day, pulling 330 pounds, 100 feet each minute, without rest or 
change. 

So when we speak of horse power we refer only to the average 
work a horse can do in one minute, that is to say, the rate at 
which he can work. 

To Find Horse Power of an Engine. — 

a equals Area of piston in square inches. 

p " Mean pressure of the steam on the piston per 

square inch. 
v " Velocity of piston per minute in feet. 



Then H. P. equals 



a X p X v 
3000 



The mean pressure in the cylinder when cutting off at 



J Stroke eqi 

3 

8 

1 

5 



als boiler pressure X .597 

" X .670 

" X .743 

" X .847 

" X .919 

" X .937 

"X .966 

" X .992 



To find the weight of the rim of the fly wheel for an engine: 
Nominal H. P. X 2000 equals weight in cwts. 
The square of the velocity 
of the circumference in 
feet per second. 

Relative Value of Heating Surface. — 

Horizontal surfaces above the flame equal 1 . 00 

Vertical surfaces above the flame equal 50 

Horizontal surfaces beneath the flame 10 

Tubes and Flues equal 1J times their diameter. 
Convex surfaces above the flame equal 1^ diameter. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



121 



FEED WATER REQUIRED BY SMALL ENGINES. 



Gauge Pressure 
at Boiler. 


Lbs. Water per 

Effective H.P. 

per Hour. 


Gauge Pressure 
at Boiler. 


Lbs. Water per 

Effective H.P. 

per Hour. 


10 


118 


60 


75 


15 


111 


70 


71 


20 


105 


80 


68 


25 


100 


90 


65 


30 


93 


100 


63 


40 


84 


120 


61 


50 


79 


150 


58 



Making Brass and Lead Pipe. 

As a majority of plumbers are not familiar with the way brass 
and lead pipe are made the following description as given in 
Valve World is given. 

Brass. — The raw materials for brass tubing, about one- 
third spelter (unrolled zinc) and two-thirds copper, are first 
melted in a crucible. The proportions of this mixture may be 
varied according to the quality of tube desired. After being 
thus melted and mixed the composition is poured into a mold 
and around a bar that is supported in the mold, thus producing a 
hollow casting. This casting when cooled is removed from the 
mold and taken to the drawing room. The machine for drawing 
the tubing has somewhat the appearance of a long trough. In 
the center of it is permanently fastened a support for holding a 
die, through which the casting is drawn, the outside of the tubing 
being thus formed. The inside of the tubing is formed by a 
mandrel of proper size placed inside the casting, this mandrel 
being held in position by a long bar. The casting is clutched 
on one end by a clamp, or "dog," as it is called, and is then 
drawn through the die and over the mandrel, which operation 
reduces its size and at the same time gives it a finish. This 
drawing process is repeated again and again, each time through 
a smaller die, until the tubing is brought down to the diameter 
and thickness required. As drawing has the effect of hardening 
the metal it is necessary that the tubing should be annealed 
after each drawing, otherwise it would become so hard and brittle 



122 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

as to break while being drawn. Annealing consists in heating 
the metal to a red heat and then allowing it to cool gradually. 

Lead. — The machine by which this work is performed is 
composed of a hydraulic cylinder and a lead cylinder. In the 
hydraulic cylinder is what is called a " water ram," and on top 
of this water ram is placed the lead cylinder, the hydraulic 
pressure being applied at the bottom of the water ram. In the 
center of the lead cylinder is a steel core, and as the melted lead 
is run into this lead cylinder it congeals, forming a solid mass 
around the steel core. A lead ram is hung directly over the 
lead cylinder, fitting it exactly, and in the bottom of this ram is a 
die, having in its center a hole the exact size of the outside of the 
pipe. It will be seen that by this arrangement the space which 
is left between the center core in the lead cylinder and the die 
above it is just the thickness and size of the pipe that is to be 
made. After the lead has been melted and run into the cylinder 
and has congealed the hydraulic pressure is applied in the 
cylinder, which raises the lead cylinder up against the lead ram, 
(which ram it will be remembered fits the lead cylinder exactly). 
The pressure applied is so great (sometimes being as high as 
28,000 pounds to the square inch) that it forces the congealed 
lead to flow out in a "stream," as it might be called, which 
completely fills the space between the steel core and the die, the 
latter forming the outside of the pipe, while the former makes 
the inside. As the pipe comes out of the machine it is coiled up 
and is then ready to use. 

TABLES OF RADIATION. 

TAPPING OF RADIATORS. 

HEIGHT FROM FLOOR TO CENTER OF TAPPING OF VARIOUS 
SINGLE-COLUMN RADIATORS. 

National and Peerless. — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping is 4^- inches, for both steam and water (except in 32-, 26-, 
23-, and 20-inch heights, where tapping is f-inch, the distance is 
4^ inches). 

Buffalo Standard and St. Louis Standard. — Distance 
from floor to center of tapping in single pipe, steam, is 5 inches 
(except 2-inch tapping, in which case the distance is 5 J inches; 
double pipe steam, 5£ inches for supply, 5 inches for return; 
water, both supply and return 5^ inches. 



TABLES OF RADIATION 123 

Italian Flue. — Distance from floor to center of supply 
tapping: single-pipe steam, 4' inches; double-pipe steam, 4£ 
inches supply and 4 inches for return; water, 4^ inches for both 
supply and return. 

Niagara Junior. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 
5 inches for both steam and water. 

Zenith. — Distance from floor to center of tapping: single- 
pipe steam, 4^ inches; double-pipe steam, supply 4| inches, 
return 4^ inches; water, both supply and return 4| inches. 

Triton, Roman and Calor. — Distance from floor to center 
of tapping is 4-J inches. 

Webster Sheet Steel. — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping is 6| inches. 

Kinnear Sheet Steel. — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping is 4 inches. 

DISTANCE FROM FLOOR TO CENTER OF TAPPING OF 
VARIOUS TWO-COLUMN RADIATORS. 

Astro, Shirley, Breemen, Calor and Reliance. — Distance 
from floor to center of tapping is 4^ inches. 

Buena and Kinnear Sheet Steel. — Distance from floor to 
center of tapping is 4 inches. 

Acme, Buffalo Standard, National, Peerless and Per- 
fection Ornamental. — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping in single-pipe steam is 4 inches ; for two-pipe steam, supply 
4^ inches and return 4 inches; for water, both supply and return 
4^ inches. 

Ideal. — Distance from floor to center of tapping; single-pipe 
steam, 4 inches; double-pipe steam, supply 4^ inches, return 4 
inches. In other than 38-inch height, distance from floor to 
center of tapping, either supply or return, is 4^ inches, except 
where f-inch tapping is required, in which case the distance is 
4| inches. 

Ducol. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is: f-inch 
tapping, 3f inches; 1-inch tapping, 4 inches; 1^-inch tapping, 4£ 
inches; lj-inch tapping, 4J inches; 2-inch tapping, 4f inches. 

Niagara, Colonial, Scepter and Tiara. — Distance from 
floor to center of tapping is 5 inches both steam and water. 

Perfection (steam). — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping; single-pipe steam, 4 inches; double-pipe steam, supply 
4| inches, return 4 inches. 



124 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Rising Sun. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 6^ 
inches. 

St. Louis Standard. — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping in single-pipe steam is 4 inches (except 2-inch tapping, 
in which case tapping is 4|- inches); two-pipe steam, A\ inches 
supply, 4 inches return; for water, 4^ inches supply or return. 

Solus. — Distance from floor to bottom of tapping for one 
pipe, or return end of two-pipe work, 3^ inches. From floor to 
center of tapping on feed end for two-pipe work, 4f inches. 

Triton and Chautauqua. — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping is 4 \ inches. 

Roman. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 4J 
inches. 

Solar. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 3| inches. 

Coronet and Diadem. — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping is 4^ inches for 2-inch tapping; 4^ inches for H-inch 
tapping; 3^-J inches for 1^-inch tapping; 3+J inches for 1-inch 
tapping, and 3+^ inches for f-inch tapping. 

Sun. — Distance from floor to bottom of tapping is 4J inches. 

DISTANCE FROM FLOOR TO CENTER OF TAPPING OF 
VARIOUS THREE-COLUMN RADIATORS. 

Bon-Ton. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 6| 
inches. 

Corinth. — Distance from floor to center of tapping: One- 
pipe, steam drop hub, 4| inches, on 18-inch height this distance 
is 2| inches ; two-pipe, steam drop hub, supply h\ inches, return 
4| inches, on 18-inch height these distances are 3^ and 2| inches, 
respectively. Hot water, floor to center of tapping is 5\ inches, 
on 18-inch height this distance is 3| inches. 

Buena, Tremont, Duet and Narrow. — Distance from floor 
to center of tapping is 4 inches. 

Buffalo. — Distance from floor to center of tapping in single- 
pipe steam is 5 inches ; two-pipe steam, supply is 5J inches, return 
5 inches. 

Peerless, Rococo, Puritan and Florentine. — Distance 
from floor to center of either supply or return tapping is 4^ inches 
for water; 4 inches for single-pipe steam; A.\ inches supply, 4 
inches return, for double-pipe steam. 

Premier. — Distance from floor to center of supply openings 
is 4 inches for single-pipe steam ; 4^ inches supply, 4 inches return 



TABLES OF RADIATION 125 

for double-pipe steam; 4^ inches, either supply or return, for 
water. 

Niagara. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 5 inches 
for water and 4J inches for steam. 

Ringen, Eclipse, Royal Union and Sovereign Union. — 
Distance from floor to center for tapping is 5 inches. 

St. Louis Standard. — Distance from floor to center of 
tapping, in single-pipe work, is 5 inches (except 2-inch tapping, 
in which case distance is 5% inches); two-pipe steam, supply 
5£ inches, return 5 inches; for water, either supply or return, 
5^ inches. 

Shirley, Roman, Imperial Union, Princess Union, Sun, 
Calor, Mercury, and Triton. — Distance from floor to center 
of tapping is 4£ inches. 

Seneca. — All tappings except 14- and 18-inch heights are 5^ 
inches from floor to center of tappings; 14- and 18-inch heights 
are 3^ inches from floor to center of tapping. 

Tricol. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is: 3| 
inches for f-inch tapping; 3§ inches for 1-inch tapping; 4 inches 
for 1^-inch tapping; 4| inches for 1^-inch tapping and 4^ inches 
for 2-inch tapping 

Kewanee. — Distances from floor to center of tapping. 

One-pipe steam, drop hub, 4^ inches; on 18-inch height this 
distance is 2\ inches. 

Two-pipe steam, drop hub, supply 5 inches, return 4^ inches; 
on 18-inch height these distances are 3 inches and 2\ inches, 
respectively. 

Hot water, floor to center, 5 inches; on 18-inch height this 
distance is 3 inches. 

Solus. — Distance from floor to bottom of tapping for one- 
pipe, or return end of two-pipe work, 4^ inches. From floor to 
center of tapping on feed end for two-pipe work, h\ inches. 

Imperial Union. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 
4f inches for 2-inch tapping; 4^ inches for 1^-inch tapping; 4| 
inches for lj-inch tapping; 4£ inches for 1-inch tapping, and 
4| inches for f-inch tapping (except for the 19-inch height, in 
which the tapping is ^-inch higher than in the other heights). 

Princess Union. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 
4^ inches for 2-inch tapping; 4 T 9 o inches for 14-inch tapping; 
4^ inches for l|-inch tapping; 4fV inches for 1-inch tapping, and 
4^ inches for f-inch tapping. 



126 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

DISTANCE FROM FLOOR TO CENTER OF TAPPING OF 
VARIOUS FOUR- AND FIVE-COLUMN RADIATORS. 

Buena. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 4 inches. 

Buffalo Standard and St. Louis Standard. — Distance from 
floor to center of tapping in single-pipe work is 5 inches (except 
2-inch tapping of St. Louis Standard, in which case distance is 
5^ inches); for two-pipe steam, supply 5^ inches, return 5 inches; 
for water, either supply or return, 5^ inches. 

National, Peerless, Celor and Triton. — Distance from 
floor to center is 4J inches. 

Seneca. — Tapping is the same as for Seneca Three Column. 

Solus Five Column Radiator. — Distance from floor to 
center of tapping for water or feed end of two-pipe steam, 5 
inches; from floor to bottom of tapping for one-pipe steam or 
return end of two-pipe steam, 4 inches. 

Distance from floor to center of tapping of various window 
radiators. 

Buena. — Distance from floor to center is 3 inches. 

St. Louis. — Distance from floor to center of tapping on single- 
pipe work is 3 inches (except 2-inch tapping, in which case 
distance is 3^ inches) ; for two-pipe steam, supply 3^ inches, 
return 3 inches; for water, either supply or return, 3£ inches. 

Utility. — Distance from floor to center of tapping is 3J 
inches. 

Federal. — Distance from floor to bottom of tapping, 2\ 
inches, and on 13-inch height this distance is 1^ inches. 

Solus. — Distance from floor to center of tapping for water 
or feed end of two-pipe steam, 2 \ inches ; from floor to bottom of 
tapping for one-pipe steam or return end of two-pipe steam, \\ 
inches. 

HEATING SURFACE OF RADIATORS. 

The following tables give the name, size and heating surface 
per section of the various radiators made by the different 
manufacturers. 



TABLES OF RADIATION 



127 



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128 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



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TABLES OF RADIATION 



129 









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130 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



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TABLES OF RADIATION 



131 







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132 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



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TABLES OF RADIATION 



133 



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134 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Tables of Radiation. 

MEASUREMENTS OF VARIOUS RADIATORS. 



Widtt 


i in 


inches. 


Legs. 


Body. 


124 


124 


12 


12 


8* 


7f 


71 


7* 


12 


10| 


54 


5i 


84 


71 


9* 


8* 


12 


HI 


9 


8ft 


n 


71 


91 


91 


8* 


«4 


12f 


121 


54 


5 


8f 


74 


94 


9 


124 


12 


11 


9 


n 


5 


81 


71 


101 


94 


71 


5 


6| 


6| 


71 


71 


7 


5 


9 


81 


81 


71 


13 


121 


91 


71 


10 


9| 



Name of Radiator. 



Aetna Flue 

Areal, box base 

Astro, two-column 

Acme, two-column 

Bon Ton, three-column 

Buffalo, single-column 

Buffalo, two-column 

Buffalo, three-column 

Buffalo, four-column 

Breman, two-column 

Buena, two-column 

Buena, three-column 

Buena, four-column 

Buena, window 

Calor, single-column 

Calor, two-column 

Calor, three-column 

Calor, four-column 

Champion Union, three-column 

Crown, two-column 

Chautauqua, two-column 

Corinth, three-column 

Coronet, two-column 

Ducol, two-column 

Duet, two-column 

Diadem, two-column 

Eclipse, three-column 

Excelsior, two-column 

Federal, window 

Favorite, two-column 

Florentine, three-column 



Length Occu- 
pied in Stack 
by Each Sec- 
tion in 
Inches. 



TABLES OF RADIATION 



135 



MEASUREMENTS OF VARIOUS RADIATORS. 



Continued. 



Width in 
Inches. 



Body. 



7| 
84 
9 

9f 

4i 

7f 
10* 

6 

7 
10* 



44 

7f 
10 
10* 

n 

9 

94 

71 

10 

10 
5i 
71 
94 
7i 



iH 

7f 
7i 



Name of Radiator. 



Ideal, two-column 

Italian Flue 

Imperial Union, three-column 

Kewanee, three-column 

National, single-column 

National, two-column 

National, four-column 

Niagara Junior 

Niagara, two-column 

Niagara, three-column 

New Royal, three-column .... 

Peerless, single-column 

Peerless, two-column 

Peerless, three-column 

Peerless, four-column 

Perfection, two-column 

Princess Union, three-column 
Puritan 

Rising Sun, two-column 

Rococo, three-column 

Ringen, two-column 

Roman, single-column 

Roman, two-column 

Roman, three-column 

Reliance, two-column 

Royal Union, three-column . . . 

Star, two-column 

Solar, two-column 

Solus, two-column 

Solus, three-column 



Length Occu- 
pied in Stack 
by Each Sec- 
tion in • 
Inches. 



3 
31 

24 

2* 

24 

24 

3 

2* 

3 

3 

2* 
2* 
2* 
2f 
2* 
3i 
24 

24 

2* 

2f 

2 

2* 

24 

2* 

3 

2* 

24 
24 
24 



136 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



MEASUREMENTS OF VARIOUS RADIATORS. — Continued. 



Width in 
Inches. 



Legs. 


Body. 


m 


HI 


H 


7* 


10f 


»* 


11* 


11 


H 


7i 


n 


9i 


6* 


5* 


H 


7 


<H 


9 


12f 


Hf 


Ml 


HT b TT 


7 


7 


8# 


81 


12 


llf 


6i 


4* 


8* 


n 


10* 


n 


13f 


12f 


12| 


12f 


7 


7 


91 


91 


11 


8 


12f 


121 


Hi 


Hi 


8h 


8 


9 


8* 


14 


14 


9* 


H 


6 


H 


12f 


m 



Name of Radiator. 



Solus, five-column 

Seneca, two-column 

Seneca, three-column 

Seneca, four-column 

Shirley, two-column 

Shirley, three-column 

St. Louis, single-column 

St. Louis, two-column 

St. Louis, three-column 

St. Louis, four-column 

St. Louis, window 

Scepter, two-column 

Sovereign Union, three-column 
Solus, window 

Triton, single-column 

Triton, two-column 

Triton, three-column 

Triton, four-column 

Triton, window 

Tiara, two-column 

Tricol, three-column 

Union O. B., three-column .... 

Unique, window 

Utility, window 

Verona, two-column 

Webster Sheet Metal Radiator . 
Settee, window 

Zenith, flue 

Zenith, narrow 

Zenith, window 



POWER OF TRANSMITTING HEAT. 137 

TAPPING LIST OF RADIATORS USED BY THE 
VARIOUS MANUFACTURERS. 

Steam. 

one-pipe work. 

Radiators containing 24 square feet and under 1 inch 

Above 24, but not exceeding 60 feet 1£ inch 

Above 60, but not exceeding 100 feet 1£ inch 

Above 100 square feet • 2 inch 

TWO-PIPE WORK. 

Radiators containing 48 square feet and under 1 X f inch 

Above 48, but not exceeding 96 feet \\ X \\ inch 

Above 96 square feet 1^ X 1^ inch 

Hot Water. 

tapped for supply and return. 

Radiators containing 40 square feet and under 1 inch 

Above 40, but not exceeding 72 square feet 1\ inch 

Above 72 square feet \\ inch 



TABLE OF POWER OF TRANSMITTING HEAT OF 

VARIOUS BUILDING SUBSTANCES, COMPARED 

WITH EACH OTHER. 

Window Glass 1 .000 

Oak and Walnut 66 

White Pine 80 

Pitch Pine 100 

Lath and Plaster 75 to 100 

Common Brick (rough) 200 to . 250 

Common Brick (whitewashed) 200 

Granite or Slate 250 

Sheet Iron 1.030 to 1.110 



138 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Various Computation Tables. 

Cubical Contents of Rooms. — The following tables (used 
by permission of the International Heater Co.) will be found of 
great convenience in calculating the cubical contents of various 
rooms. The variety of combinations given is applicable to 
nearly every condition met in ordinary practice. 

For convenience in making calculations it is suggested that 
dimensions under 3 inches be dropped; over 3 inches and under 
9 inches be extended as '6 inches and over 9 inches as the next 
higher number in feet. 

Example: The actual measurements of a room are 9' 2" x 
12' 10" with 8' 10" ceiling. To use the table consider the room 
9 X 13 X 9. 

Again, where in the larger numbers variations of \ foot are 
omitted, a little experience will indicate that the tables are 
readily adapted to such conditions. 

Example: The actual measurements of a room are 11J' X 13J' 
X 9^', the actual cubic contents are therefore 1475 cubic feet, 
and it is a tedious process to arrive at this conclusion by ordinary- 
methods . 

To use the table increase the first number by 6 inches and 
diminish the second by 6 inches and using the product found 
under 12 X 13 X 9£ we have 1482 which is as close approxi- 
mation as is required in practice. 

Or the dimensions 11 X 14 could have been used with a 
variation from the true result of only 12 cubic feet, too small 
an error to affect results. 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



139 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF ROOMS. 





Having Ceilings of the Following Heights. 


Floor Area. 




















8 ft. 


Sift. 


9 ft. 


91 ft. 


10 ft. 


101ft. 


11 ft. 


12 ft. 


3X3 


72 


77 


81 


85 


90 


95 


99 


108 


3 X 31 


84 


89 


95 


99 


105 


110 


115 


126 


3X4 


96 


102 


108 


114 


120 


126 


132 


144 


3 X 41 


108 


115 


122 


128 


135 


142 


148 


162 


3X5 


120 


128 


135 


142 


150 


158 


165 


180 


3X5* 


132 


140 


149 


156 


165 


173 


181 


198 


3X6 


144 


153 


162 


171 


180 


189 


198 


216 


31 X 3| 


98 


104 


110 


116 


123 


129 


134 


147 


31 X 4 


112 


119 


126 


133 


140 


147 


154 


168 


31 X 4| 


126 


134 


142 


149 


158 


165 


173 


189 


3* X 5 


140 


149 


158 


166 


175 


184 


192 


210 


31 X 51 


154 


164 


173 


182 


193 


202 


211 


231 


31 X 6 


168 


179 


189 


199 


210 


221 


231 


252 


31 X 61 


182 


193 


205 


216 


228 


239 


250 


273 


34 X 7 


196 


208 


221 


232 


245 


257 


269 


294 


4X4 


128 


136 


144 


152 


160 


168 


176 


192 


4 X 41 


144 


153 


162 


171 


180 


189 


198 


216 


4X5 


160 


170 


180 


190 


200 


210 


220 


240 


4 X 51 


176 


187 


198 


209 


220 


231 


422 


264 


4X6 


192 


204 


216 


228 


240 


252 


264 


288 


4 X 61 


208 


221 


234 


247 


260 


273 


286 


312 


4X7 


224 


238 


252 


266 


280 


294 


308 


336 


4 X 71 


240 


255 


270 


285 


300 


315 


330 


360 


4X8 


256 


272 


288 


304 


320 


336 


352 


384 


41 X 41 


162 


172 


182 


192 


203 


213 


222 


243 


41X 5 


180 


191 


203 


213 


225 


236 


247 


270 


41 X 51 


198 


210 


223 


235 


248 


260 


272 


297 


4iX 6 


216 


230 


243 


256 


270 


284 


297 


324 


41 X 61 


234 


249 


263 


277 


293 


307 


321 


351 


41 X 7 
41 X 71 
41 X 8 


252 


268 


284 


299 


315 


331 


346 


378 


270 


287 


304 


320 


338 


354 


371 


405 


288 


306 


324 


342 


360 


378 


396 


432 


41 X 81 


306 


325 


344 


363 


383 


402 


420 


459 


41 X 9 


324 


345 


365 


384 


405 


425 


445 


486 


5X5 


200 


212 


225 


237 


250 


263 


275 


300 


5 X 51 


220 


234 


248 


261 


275 


289 


302 


330 


5X6 


240 


255 


270 


285 


300 


315 


330 


360 


5 X 61 


260 


276 


293 


308 


325 


341 


357 


390 


5X7 


280 


297 


315 


332 


350 


368 


385 


420 


5 X 71 


300 


319 


338 


358 


375 


394 


412 


450 


5X8 


320 


340 


360 


380 


400 


420 


440 


480 


5 X 81 


340 


361 


383 


403 


425 


446 


467 


510 


5X9 


360 


382 


405 


427 


450 


473 


495 


540 


5 X 91 


380 


404 


428 


451 


475 


499 


522 


570 


5 X10 


400 


425 


450 


475 


500 


525 


550 


600 


51 X 51 


242 


257 


272 


287 


303 


318 


332 


363 


51 X 6 
51 X 61 


264 


281 


297 


313 


330 


347 


363 


396 


286 


304 


322 


339 


358 


375 


393 


429 


51X 7 


308 


327 


347 


365 


385 


404 


423 


462 


51 X 71 


330 


351 


371 


391 


413 


433 


453 


495 


51X 8 


352 


374 


396 


418 


440 


462 


484 


528 


51 X 81 


374 


397 


421 


444 


468 


491 


514 


561 


51 X 9 


396 


421 


446 


470 


495 


520 


544 


594 


51 X 91 


418 


444 


470 


496 


523 


549 


574 


627 



140 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF ROOMS. — Continued. 







Having Ceilings of the Following Heights. 




Floor Area. 




















8 ft. 


84 ft. 


9 ft. 


94 ft. 


10 ft. 


104 ft. 


lift. 


12 ft. 


5JX10 


440 


468 


495 


522 


550 


578 


605 


660 


54X104 


462 


491 


520 


548 


578 


606 


635 


693 


5|X11 


484 


514 


545 


574 


605 


635 


665 


726 


6X6 


288 


306 


324 


342 


360 


378 


396 


432 


64 X 64 


312 


332 


351 


370 


390 


410 


429 


468 


6X7 


336 


357 


378 


399 


420 


441 


462 


504 


6 X 7| 


360 


383 


405 


427 


450 


473 


495 


540 


6X8 


384 


408 


432 


456 


480 


504 


528 


576 


6 X 8i 


408 


434 


459 


484 


510 


536 


561 


612 


6X9 


432 


459 


486 


513 


540 


567 


594 


648 


6 X 94 


456 


485 


513 


541 


570 


599 


627 


684 


6 X10 


480 


510 


540 


570 


600 


630 


660 


720 


6 XlOi 


504 


536 


567 


598 


630 


662 


693 


756 


6 Xll 


528 


561 


594 


627 


660 


693 


726 


792 


6 Xlli 


552 


587 


621 


655 


690 


725 


759 


828 


6 X12 


576 


612 


648 


684 


720 


756 


792 


864 


64 X 64 


338 


359 


380 


401 


423 


444 


464 


507 


6| X 7 


364 


387 


410 


432 


455 


478 


500 


546 


64 X 74 


390 


414 


439 


463 


488 


512 


536 


585 


64 X 8 


416 


442 


468 


494 


520 


546 


572 


624 


64 X 84 


442 


470 


497 


524 


553 


580 


607 


663 


64 X 9 


468 


497 


527 


555 


585 


615 


643 


702 


64 X 94 


494 


525 


556 


586 


618 


648 


679 


741 


64X10 


520 


553 


585 


617 


650 


683 


715 


780 


64X104 


546 


580 


614 


648 


683 


717 


750 


819 


64X11 


572 


608 


644 


679 


715 


751 


786 


858 


64X114 


598 


635 


673 


710 


748 


785 


822 


897 


64X12 


624 


663 


702 


741 


780 


819 


858 


936 


64X124 


650 


691 


731 


771 


813 


853 


893 


975 


64X13 


676 


718 


761 


802 


845 


887 


929 


1014 


7X7 


392 


417 


441 


465 


490 


515 


539 


588 


7 X 74 


420 


446 


473 


498 


525 


551 


577 


630 


7X8 


448 


476 


504 


532 


560 


588 


616 


672 


7 X 84 


476 


506 


536 


565 


595 


625 


654 


714 


7X9 


504 


336 


567 


598 


630 


662 


693 


756 


7 X 94 


532 


565 


599 


631 


665 


698 


731 


798 


7 X10 


560 


595 


630 


665 


700 


735 


770 


840 


7 X104 


588 


625 


662 


698 


735 


772 


808 


882 


7 Xll 


616 


655 


693 


731 


770 


809 


847 


924 


7 Xlli 


644 


684 


725 


764 


805 


845 


885 


966 


7 X12 


672 


714 


756 


798 


840 


882 


924 


1008 


7 X124 


700 


744 


788 


831 


875 


919 


962 


1050 


7 X13 


728 


774 


819 


864 


910 


956 


1001 


1092 


7 X134 


756 


803 


851 


897 


945 


992 


1039 


1134 


7 X14 


784 


833 


882 


931 


980 


1029 


1078 


1176 


74 X 74 


450 


478 


506 


534 


563 


591 


618 


675 


74 X 8 


480 


510 


540 


570 


600 


630 


660 


720 


74 X 84 


510 


542 


574 


605 


638 


669 


701 


765 


74 X 9 


540 


574 


608 


641 


675 


709 


742 


810 


74 X 94 


570 


606 


641 


676 


713 


748 


783 


855 


74X10 


600 


638 


675 


712 


750 


788 


825 


900 


74x104 


630 


669 


709 


748 


788 


827 


866 


945 


74X11 


660 


701 


743 


783 


825 


866 


907 


990 


74X114 


690 


733 


776 


819 


863 


906 


948 


1035 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



141 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF ROOMS. — Continued. 







Having Ceilings of the Following Heights. 




Floor Area. 




















8 ft. 


84 ft. 


9 ft. 


94 ft. 


10 ft. 


104 ft. 


11 ft. 


12 ft. 


71X12 


720 


765 


810 


855 


900 


945 


990 


1080 


74X124 


750 


797 


844 


890 


938 


984 


1031 


1125 


7iX13 


780 


829 


878 


926 


975 


1024 


1072 


1170 


7iXl3i 


810 


861 


911 


961 


1013 


1063 


1113 


1215 


74X14 


840 


893 


945 


997 


1050 


1103 


1155 


1260 


74X144 


870 


924 


979 


1033 


1088 


1142 


1196 


1305 


74X15 


900 


956 


1013 


1068 


1125 


1181 


1237 


1350 


8X8 


512 


544 


576 


608 


640 


672 


704 


768 


8X 8| 


544 


578 


612 


646 


680 


714 


748 


816 


8X9 


576 


612 


648 


684 


720 


756 


792 


864 


8X 9| 


608 


646 


684 


722 


760 


798 


836 


912 


8 X10 


640 


680 


720 


760 


800 


840 


880 


960 


8 X10* 


672 


714 


756 


798 


840 


882 


924 


.1008 


8 Xll 


704 


748 


792 


836 


880 


924 


968 


1056 


8 Xlll 


736 


782 


828 


874 


920 


966 


1012 


1104 


8 X12 


768 


816 


864 


912 


960 


1008 


1056 


1152 


8 X12J 


800 


850 


900 


950 


1000 


1050 


1100 


1200 


8 X13 


832 


884 


936 


988 


1040 


1092 


1144 


1248 


8 X134 


864 


918 


972 


1026 


1080 


1134 


1188 


1296 


8 X14 


896 


952 


1008 


1064 


1120 


1176 


1232 


1344 


8 X144 


928 


986 


1044 


1102 


1160 


1218 


1276 


1392 


8 X15 


960 


1020 


1080 


1140 


1200 


1260 


1320 


1440 


8 X154 


992 


1054 


1116 


1178 


1240 


1302 


1364 


1488 


8 X16 


1024 


1088 


1152 


1216 


1280 


1344 


1408 


1536 


84 X 84 


578 


614 


650 


686 


723 


759 


794 


867 


84 X 9 


612 


650 


689 


726 


765 


803 


841 


918 


84 X 94 


646 


686 


727 


767 


808 


848 


888 


969 


84X10 


680 


723 


765 


807 


850 


893 


935 


1020 


84 X 104 


714 


759 


803 


847 


893 


937 


981 


1071 


84X11 


748 


795 


842 


888 


935 


982 


1028 


1122 


84X114 


782 


831 


880 


928 


978 


1026 


1075 


1173 


8JX12 


816 


867 


918 


969 


1020 


1071 


1122 


1224 


8iX124 


850 


903 


956 


1009 


1063 


1116 


1168 


1275 


8iX13 


884 


939 


995 


1049 


1105 


1160 


1215 


1326 


84X134 


918 


975 


1033 


1090 


1148 


1205 


1262 


1377 


8iX14 


952 


1012 


1071 


1130 


1190 


1250 


1309 


1428 


84X144 


986 


1048 


1109 


1170 


1233 


1294 


1355 


1479 


84X15 


1020 


1084 


1148 


1211 


1275 


1339 


1402 


1530 


84X154 


1054 


1120 


1186 


1251 


1318 


1383 


1449 


1581 


8§X16 


1088 


1156 


1224 


1292 


1360 


1428 


1496 


1632 


84X164 


1122 


1192 


1262 


1332 


1403 


1473 


1542 


1683 


84X17 


1156 


1228 


1301 


1372 


1445 


1517 


1589 


1734 


9X9 


648 


689 


729 


769 


810 


851 


891 


972 


9 X 94 


684 


727 


770 


812 


855 


898 


940 


1026 


9 X10 


720 


765 


810 


855 


900 


945 


990 


1080 


9 X104 


756 


803 


851 


897 


945 


992 


1039 


1134 


9 Xll 


792 


842 


891 


940 


990 


1040 


1089 


1188 


9 X114 


828 


880 


932 


982 


1035 


1087 


1138 


1242 


9 X12 


864 


918 


972 


1026 


1080 


1134 


1188 


1296 


9 X124 


900 


956 


1013 


1068 


1125 


1181 


1237 


1350 


9 X13 


936 


995 


1053 


1111 


1170 


1229 


1287 


1404 


9 X134 


972 


1033 


1094 


1154 


1215 


1276 


1336 


1458 


9 X14 


1008 


1071 


1134 


1197 


1260 


1323 


1386 


1512 


9 Xl4i 


1044 


1109 


1175 


1239 


1305 


1370 


1435 


1566 



142 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF ROOMS. — Continued. 







Having Ceilings of the Following Heights. 




Floor Area. 




















8 ft. 


8! ft. 


9 ft. 


9! ft. 


10 ft. 


101ft. 


11 ft. 


12 ft. 


9 X15 


1080 


1148 


1215 


1282 


1350 


1418 


1485 


1620 


9 X15! 


1116 


1186 


1256 


1325 


1395 


1465 


1534 


1674 


9 X16 


1152 


1224 


1296 


1368 


1440 


1512 


1584 


1728 


9 X16i 


1188 


1262 


1337 


1410 


1485 


1559 


1633 


1782 


9 X17 


1224 


1301 


1377 


1453 


1530 


1607 


1683 


1836 


9 X17i 


1260 


1339 


1418 


1496 


1575 


1654 


1732 


1890 


9 X18 


1296 


1377 


1458 


1539 


1620 


1701 


1782 


1944 


91 X 9| 


722 


767 


812 


857 


903 


948 


992 


1083 


91X10 


760 


808 


855 


902 


950 


998 


1045 


1140 


9* X 104 


798 


848 


898 


947 


998 


1047 


1097 


1197 


9-1X11 


836 


888 


940 


992 


1045 


1097 


1149 


1254 


91X111 


874 


929 


983 


1038 


1093 


1147 


1201 


1311 


91X12 


912 


969 


1026 


1083 


1140 


1197 


1254 


1368 


91X121 


950 


1009 


1069 


1128 


1188 


1247 


1306 


1425 


91X13 


988 


1050 


1111 


1173 


1235 


1297 


1358 


1482 


91X131 


1026 


1090 


1154 


1218 


1283 


1347 


1410 


1539 


9-1 X 14 


1064 


1131 


1197 


1263 


1330 


1397 


1463 


1596 


91X141 


1102 


1171 


1240 


1308 


1378 


1446 


1515 


1653 


91X15 


1140 


1211 


1282 


1353 


1425 


1496 


1567 


1710 


91X151 


1178 


1252 


1325 


1398 


1473 


1546 


1619 


1767 


91X16 


1216 


1292 


1368 


1444 


1520 


1596 


1672 


1824 


91X161 


1254 


1332 


1411 


1489 


1568 


1646 


1724 


1881 


91X17 


1292 


1373 


1453 


1534 


1615 


1696 


1776 


1938 


91X171 


1330 


1413 


1496 


1579 


1663 


1746 


1828 


1995 


91X18 


1368 


1454 


1539 


1624 


1710 


1796 


1881 


2052 


91X181 


1406 


1494 


1582 


1669 


1758 


1845 


1933 


2109 


91 X 19 


1444 


1534 


1625 


1714 


1805 


1895 


1895 


2166 


10 X10 


800 


850 


900 


950 


1000 


1050 


1100 


1200 


10 X101 


840 


893 


945 


997 


1050 


1103 


1155 


1260 


10 Xll 


880 


935 


990 


1045 


1100 


1155 


1210 


1320 


10 Xll! 


920 


978 


1035 


1092 


1150 


1208 


1265 


1380 


10 X12 


960 


1020 


1080 


1140 


1200 


1260 


1320 


1440 


10 X121 


1000 


1063 


1125 


1187 


1250 


1313 


1375 


1500 


10 X13 


1040 


1105 


1170 


1235 


1300 


1365 


1430 


1560 


10 X131 


1080 


1148 


1215 


1282 


1350 


1418 


1485 


1620 


10 X14 


1120 


1190 


1260 


1330 


1400 


1470 


1540 


1680 


10 X141 


1160 


1233 


1305 


1377 


1450 


1523 


1595 


1740 


10 X15 


1200 


1275 


1350 


1425 


1500 


1575 


1650 


1800 


10 X15! 


1240 


1318 


1395 


1472 


1550 


1628 


1705 


1860 


10 X16 


1280 


1360 


1440 


1520 


1600 


1680 


1760 


1920 


10 X16! 


1320 


1403 


1485 


1567 


1650 


1733 


1815 


1980 


10 X17 


1360 


1445 


1530 


1615 


1700 


1785 


1870 


2040 


10 X17! 


1400 


1488 


1575 


1662 


1750 


1838 


1925 


2100 


10 X18 


1440 


1530 


1620 


1710 


1800 


1890 


1980 


2160 


10 X18! 


1480 


1573 


1665 


1757 


1850 


1943 


2035 


2220 


10 X19 


1520 


1615 


1710 


1805 


1900 


1995 


2090 


2280 


10 X19! 


1560 


1658 


1755 


1852 


1950 


2048 


2145 


2340 


10 X20 


1600 


1700 


1800 


1900 


2000 


2100 


2200 


2400 


11 Xll 


968 


1029 


1089 


1149 


1210 


1271 


1331 


1452 


11 X12 


1056 


1122 


1188 


1254 


1320 


1386 


1452 


1584 


11 X13 


1144 


1216 


1287 


1358 


1430 


1502 


1573 


1716 


11 X14 


1232 


1309 


1386 


1463 


1540 


1617 


1694 


1848 


11 X15 


1320 


1403 


1485 


1567 


1650 


1733 


1815 


1980 


11 X16 


1408 


1496 


1584 


1672 


1760 


1848 


1936 


2112 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



143 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF ROOMS. — Continued. 







Having Ceilings of the Following Heights. 




Floor Area. 




















8 ft. 


8| ft. 


9 ft. 


9ift. 


10 ft. 


10i ft. 


lift. 


12 ft. 


11X17 


1496 


1590 


1683 


1776 


1870 


1964 


2057 


2244 


11X18 


1584 


1683 


1782 


1881 


1980 


2079 


2178 


2376 


11X19 


1672 


1777 


1881 


1986 


2090 


2195 


2299 


2508 


11X20 


1760 


1870 


1980 


2090 


2200 


2310 


2420 


2640 


11X21 


1848 


1964 


2079 


2194 


2310 


2426 


2541 


2772 


11X22 


1936 


2057 


2178 


2299 


2420 


2541 


2662 


2904 


12X12 


1152 


1224 


1296 


1368 


1440 


1512 


1584 


1728 


12X13 


1248 


1326 


1404 


1482 


1560 


1638 


1716 


1872 


12X14 


1344 


1428 


1512 


1596 


1680 


1764 


1848 


2016 


12X15 


1440 


1530 


1620 


1710 


1800 


1890 


1980 


2160 


12X16 


1536 


1632 


1728 


1824 


1920 


2016 


2112 


2304 


12X17 


1632 


1734 


1836 


1938 


2040 


2142 


2244 


2448 


12X18 


1728 


1836 


1944 


2052 


2160 


2268 


2376 


2592 


12X19 


1824 


1938 


2052 


2166 


2280 


2394 


2508 


2736 


12X20 


1920 


2040 


2160 


2280 


2400 


2520 


2640 


2880 


12X21 


2016 


2142 


2268 


2394 


2520 


2646 


2772 


3024 


12X22 


2112 


2244 


2376 


2508 


2640 


2772 


2904 


3168 


12X23 


2208 


2346 


2484 


2622 


2760 


2898 


3036 


3312 


12X24 


2304 


2448 


2592 


2736 


2880 


3024 


3168 


3456 


13X13 


1352 


1437 


1521 


1605 


1690 


1775 


1859 


2028 


13X14 


1456 


1547 


1638 


1729 


1820 


1911 


2002 


2184 


13X15 


1560 


1658 


1755 


1852 


1950 


2048 


2145 


2340 


13X16 


1664 


1768 


1872 


1976 


2080 


2184 


2288 


2496 


13X17 


1768 


1879 


1989 


2099 


2210 


2321 


2431 


2652 


13X18 


1872 


1989 


2106 


2223 


2340 


2457 


2574 


2808 


13X19 


1976 


2100 


2223 


2346 


2470 


2594 


2717 


2964 


13X20 


2080 


2210 


2340 


2470 


2600 


2730 


2860 


3120 


13X21 


2184 


2321 


2457 


2593 


2730 


2867 


3003 


3276 


13X22 


2288 


2431 


2574 


2717 


2860 


3003 


3146 


3432 


13X23 


2392 


2542 


2691 


2840 


2990 


3140 


3289 


3588 


13X24 


2496 


2652 


2808 


2964 


3120 


3276 


3432 


3744 


13X25 


2600 


2763 


2925 


3087 


3250 


3413 


3575 


3900 


13X26 


2704 


2873 


3042 


3211 


3380 


3549 


3718 


4056 


14X14 


1568 


1666 


1764 


1862 


1960 


2058 


2156 


2352 


14X15 


1680 


1785 


1890 


1995 


2100 


2205 


2310 


2520 


14X16 


1792 


1904 


2016 


2128 


2240 


2352 


2464 


2688 


14X17 


1904 


2023 


2142 


2261 


2380 


2499 


2618 


2856 


14X18 


2016 


2142 


2268 


2394 


2520 


2646 


2772 


3024 


14X19 


2128 


2261 


2394 


2527 


2660 


2793 


2926 


3192 


14X20 


2240 


2380 


2520 


2660 


2800 


2940 


3080 


3360 


14X21 


2352 


2499 


2646 


2793 


2940 


3087 


3234 


3528 


14X22 


2464 


2618 


2772 


2926 


3080 


3234 


3388 


3696 


14X23 


2576 


2737 


2898 


3059 


3220 


3381 


3542 


3864 


14X24 


2688 


2856 


3024 


3192 


3360 


3528 


3696 


4032 


14X25 


2800 


2975 


3150 


3325 


3500 


3675 


3850 


4200 


14X26 


2912 


3094 


3276 


3458 


3640 


3822 


4004 


4368 


14X27 


3024 


3213 


3402 


3591 


3780 


3969 


4158 


4536 


14X28 


3136 


3332 


3528 


3724 


3920 


4116 


4312 


4704 


15X15 


1800 


1913 


2025 


2137 


2250 


2363 


2475 


2700 


15X16 


1920 


2040 


2160 


2280 


2400 


2520 


2640 


2880 


15X17 


2040 


2168 


2295 


2422 


2550 


2678 


2805 


3060 


15X18 


2160 


2295 


2430 


2565 


2700 


2835 


2970 


3240 


15X19 


2280 


2423 


2565 


2707 


2850 


2993 


3135 


3420 


15X20 


2400 


2550 


2700 


2850 


3000 


3150 


3300 


3600 



144 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

CUBICAL CONTENTS OF ROOMS. — Continued. 





Having Ceilings of the Following Heights. 


Floor Area. 




















8 ft. 


8£ft. 


9 ft. 


9§ft. 


10 ft. 


10i ft. 


11 ft. 


12 ft. 


15X21 


2520 


2678 


2835 


2992 


3150 


3308 


3465 


3780 


15X22 


2640 


2805 


2970 


3135 


3300 


3465 


3630 


3960 


15X23 


2760 


2933 


3105 


3277 


3450 


3623 


3795 


4140 


15X24 


2880 


3060 


3240 


3420 


3600 


3780 


3960 


4320 


15X25 


3000 


3188 


3375 


3562 


3750 


3938 


4125 


4500 


15X26 


3120 


3315 


3510 


3705 


3900 


4095 


4290 


4680 


15X27 


3240 


3443 


3645 


3847 


4050 


4253 


4455 


4860 


15X28 


3360 


3570 


3780 


3990 


4200 


4410 


4620 


5040 


15X29 


3480 


3698 


3915 


4132 


4350 


4568 


4785 


5220 


15X30 


3600 


3825 


4050 


4275 


4500 


4725 


4950 


5400 


16X16 


2048 


2176 


2304 


2432 


2560 


2688 


2816 


3072 


16X17 


2176 


2312 


2448 


2584 


2720 


2856 


2992 


3264 


16X18 


2304 


2448 


2592 


2736 


2880 


3024 


3168 


3456 


16X19 


2432 


2584 


2736 


2888 


3040 


3192 


3344 


3648 


16X20 


2560 


2720 


2880 


3040 


3200 


3360 


3520 


3840 


16X21 


2688 


2856 


3024 


3192 


3360 


3528 


3696 


4032 


16X22 


2816 


2992 


3168 


3344 


3520 


3696 


3872 


4224 


16X23 


2944 


3128 


3312 


3496 


3680 


3864 


4048 


4416 


16X24 


3072 


3264 


3456 


3648 


3840 


4032 


4224 


4608 


16X25 


3200 


3400 


3600 


3800 


4000 


4200 


4400 


4800 


16X26 


3328 


3536 


3744 


3952 


4160 


4368 


4576 


4992 


16X27 


3456 


3672 


3888 


4104 


4320 


4336 


4752 


5184 


16X28 


3584 


3808 


4032 


4256 


4480 


4704 


4928 


5376 


16X29 


3712 


3944 


4176 


4408 


4640 


4872 


5104 


5568 


16X30 


3840 


4080 


4320 


4560 


4800 


5040 


5280 


5760 


16X31 


3968 


4216 


4464 


4712 


4960 


5208 


5456 


5952 


16X32 


4096 


4352 


4608 


4864 


5120 


5376 


5632 


6144 


18X18 


2592 


2754 


2916 


3078 


3240 


3402 


3564 


3888 


18X20 


2880 


3060 


3240 


3420 


3600 


3780 


3960 


4320 


18X22 


3168 


3366 


3564 


3762 


3960 


4158 


4356 


4752 


18X24 


3456 


3672 


3888 


4104 


4320 


4536 


4752 


5184 


18X26 


3744 


3978 


4212 


4446 


4680 


4914 


5148 


5616 


18X28 


4032 


4284 


4536 


4788 


5040 


5292 


5544 


6048 


18X30 


4320 


4590 


4860 


5130 


5400 


5670 


5940 


6480 


18X32 


4608 


4896 


5184 


5472 


5760 


6048 


6336 


6912 


18X34 


4896 


5202 


5508 


5814 


6120 


6426 


6732 


7344 


18X36 


5184 


5508 


5832 


6156 


6480 


6804 


7126 


7776 


20X20 


3200 


3400 


3600 


3800 


4000 


4200 


4400 


4800 


20X22 


3520 


3740 


3960 


4180 


4400 


4620 


4840 


5280 


20X24 


3840 


4080 


4320 


4560 


4800 


5040 


5280 


5760 


20X26 


4160 


4420 


4680 


4940 


5200 


5460 


5720 


6240 


20X28 


4480 


4760 


5040 


5320 


5600 


5880 


6160 


6720 


20X30 


4800 


5100 


5400 


5700 


6000 


6300 


6600 


7200 


20X32 


5120 


5440 


5760 


6080 


6400 


6720 


7040 


7680 


20X34 


5440 


5780 


6120 


6460 


6800 


7140 


7480 


8160 


20X36 


5760 


6120 


6480 


6840 


7200 


7560 


7920 


8640 


20X38 


6080 


6460 


6840 


7220 


7600 


7980 


8360 


9120 


20X40 


6400 


6800 


7200 


7600 


8000 


8400 


8800 


9600 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



145 



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146 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



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VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



147 



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gE.sl 



148 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLES. * 

The following tables will be found useful in estimating the 
size of registers, piping, and heating surface of pipes and boiler 
tubes : 



TABLE OF SIZES AND DIMENSIONS OF SAFETY DOUBLE 
HOT-AIR STACKS. 

Made by the Excelsior Steel Furnace Company. 











M 


«*-! 


T3 




& 


-S © 


TO 


03 










"o3 


o 


03 




o 


JL& 


a 


o 

03 


a 
.2 


o 

03 


o 

03 


TO 
03 

O 

d 
i— i 




o 

ft 


J3 

o 
,d 

TO 


03 

o 

a 

03 


TO • 

03^4 

g| 

03 .d 


■5^ 
— ,d 

03.-£ 
~o3 P 

ftfl 


o 
o 

*o 

o 
o 

£ 

d 
o 


ft 
CQ 

,d 
1 

TO"0 
U 03 
03-2 

.IS 


o 

to 


m 

03 

12 

°to 


QQ 

03 

r2 


d 


o><« 
fa ° 




03 . 


ft 
"0 


03^ 

d & 




03 
C3 

03 
ft 


bcO 

03 03 


3 

TO 


d 

o 


'to 

d 


03 
02 


03 _ 
ft-d 


Ji 


0<M 


a 
d 
o 


03^ 
TO 03 

t-. TO 


o CO 


73 

'J-d 


TO" 


03 

■8 

o3 
W 
O 


o 

N 

w 
'a 


s 


03 

d 
i— i 


6£ 

03 -g 

• iH 03 

2 ft 


d 
a>,d 

1| 


1^ 
o o 




.2 03 

WIJ2 
03^ 

o o 


32 tj 


■al 


03 
N 


d 


d 


o3 
03 
(-i 


o3.i7 

ftPn 




I'l 


03 
f-i 


g£ 


•2 O 03 


'32 


03O 


m 


<* 


< 


< 


O 


H 


03 


<1 


as 


O 


w 


<J 


4X 8 


3*X 7f 


3iX 7 


23 


35 


61 


7 


38 


6X 8 


500 


6X 8 


35 


4X10 


3fX 9| 


3iX 9 


29 


43 


71 


8 


50 


8X10 


850 


8X10 


45 


4X11 


3fXl0f 


31X10 


32i 


48 


8 


8 


50 


8X12 


1000 


9X11 


55 


4X12 


3*X11* 


31X11 


35 


53 


81 


9 


63 


9X12 


1250 


10X121 


60 


4X14 


3*X13* 


31X13 


41 


63 


9 


9 


63 


10X12 


1650 


12X14 


70 


6X10 


5fX 9£ 


5iX 9 


47 


71 


10 


10 


78 


10X14 


2000 


12X17 


80 


6X12 


51X11* 


51X11 


58 


87 


11 


12 


113 


12X15 


2300 


14X17 


115 


6X14 


5fX13* 


51X13 


68 


102 


12 


12 


113 


12X17 


2600 


15X18 


120 


6X16 


5fX15£ 


51X15 


79 


119 


121 


14 


154 


14X20 


3000 


15X20 


156 


8X18 


7fX17f 


71X17 


124 


186 


15 


16 


201 


16X24 


4000 


20X20 


210 


10X20 


9fX19f 
9fX23f 


91X19 


176 


264 


18 


18 


254 


20X24 


5400 


20X27 


270 


10X24 


91X23 


213 


330 


201 


20 


314 


21X29 


7000 


20X35 


340 



* The following four pages have been taken from Kidder's Pocket Book 
by permission. 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



149 



DIMENSIONS OF REGISTERS AND BORDERS.* 

Made by the Tuttle & Bailey Manufacturing Co. 





Register. 


Border. 


Size of 










Body. 


Extreme 
Dimensions. 


Depth 
Open. 


With Ribs. 
Floor Opening. 


Tin-box Size. 


4X 6 


5f X 7f 


If 






4X 8 


5i X 91 


2i 






. 4X10 


5i Xlli 


2i 






4X13 


5i Xl4i 


2i 






4X15 


5i Xl6% 


2i 






4X18 


5i X19| 


2i 






5X 8 


6f X 9| 


2 


81 Xlli 


5%X 8% 


5X11 


6| X12| 


2 


81 X141 


h%,XW% 


5X13 


6| X14| 


2 


81 X161 


5%X13% 


5X16 


6f X17| 


2 


81 X191 


5%X16% 


6X 6 


7%X 7% 


2| 


9% X 9% 


6%X 6% 


6X 8 


7%X 9% 


2f 


9% > XW%> 


6%X 8% 


6X 9 


7%X10% 


2| 


9^X12% 


6%X 9% 


6X10 


7%X11% 


2| 


9^X13% 


6%X10% 


6X14 


7%X15% 


2| 


9%Xl7% 


6%X14% 


6X16 


7%X17% 


2| 


9% X 19% 


6%X16% 


6X18 


7%X19% 


2f 


9%X21% 


6%X18% 


6X24 


7%X25% 


2| 


9%X21% 


6%X24% 


7X 7 


8%X 8% 


2f 


10%X10% 


7%X 7% 


7X10 


8%XU% 


2f 


10%X13% 


7%X10% 


8X 8f 


9f X 9f 


3 


HI xiil 


8f X 8f 


8X10 


9f Xllf 


3 


HI X131 


8f XlOf 


8xl2f 


9f Xl3f 


3 


HI X151 


8f X12| 


8X15 


9| X16% 


3 


HI xisi 


8f X15f 


8X18 


9f Xl9f 


3 


HI X211 


8f X18f 


8X21 


9f X22f 


3 


ill X241 


8f X21f 


8X24 


9| X25f 


3 


HI X271 


8f X24f 


9X 9 


iof xm 


3i 


13%X13% 


9%X 9% 


9Xl2f 


101 X131 


3i 


13%X16% 


9%X12% 


9X13 


11 X15 


3i 


13%X17% 


9%X13% 


9Xl4f 


101 X151 


3i 


13%X18% 


9%X14% 


9X16 


101 X17% 


3i 


13Y 6 X20% 


9%X16% 


9X18 


101 X191 


3i 


13%X22% 


9%X18% 


9X20 


101 X211 


3i 


13%X24% 


9%X20% 


10X10 


n%xn% 


3| 


14%X14% 


10%X10% 


10X12 


n%xt3% 


3f 


14%X16% 


10%X12% 


10X14 


12 XlS% 


3f 


14%X18% 


10%X14% 


10X16 


11%X171 


3| 


14%X20% 


10%X1Q% 


10X18 


11%X191 


31 


14%X22% 


10%X18% 


10X20 


11%X211 


3| 


14%X24% 


10%X20% 


12X12 


14%X14% 


4 


16%X16% 


12%X12% 


12X14 


14%X16% 


4 


16%X18% 


12%X14% 


12X15 


13%X16% 


4 


16%X19% 


12%X15% 



* For special side-wall registers, see p. 1201. 

t These sizes are those most likely to be found in stock of local dealers. 



150 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

DIMENSIONS OF REGISTERS AND BORDERS.— Cont. 





Register 




Border. 


Size of 










Body. 


Extreme 


Depth 


With Ribs. 


Tin— V\r»"v Rita 




Dimensions. 


Open. 


Floor Opening. 


X111"UUA lOl^O. 


12X16 


14%X18 


4 


16%X20% 


12%X16% 


12X17* 


14%X19 


4 


16%X21% 


12%X17% 


12X18 


14% X 20% 


4 


16%X22% 


12%X18%. 


12X19 


14% X 21% 


4 


16%X23% 


12%X19% 


12X20 


14%X22 


4 


16%X24% 


12%X20% 


12X24 


14%X26 


4 


16%X28% 


12%X24% 


12X30 


14%X32 


4 






12X36 


14%X38 


4 






14X14 


16%Xl6% 


4 


18^X18% 


141 X141 


14X16 


16%X18% 


4 


18%X20% 


141 X161 


14X18 


16| X20% 


4 


18%X22% 


141 X181 


14X20 


16%X22% 


4 


18%X24% 


141 X20| 


14X22 


16| X24i 


4 


18i% X 26% 


141 X221 


15X25 


17%X27% 


4* 


19%X29% 


161 X26i 


16X16 


18%X18% 


4i 


201 X201 


161 X161 


16X18 


18%X20% 


4i 


201 X221 


161 X18| 


16X20 


18%X22% 


4i 


201 X241 


161 X20| 


16X22 


18%X24% 


4i 


201 X261 


161 X22| 


16X24 


18%X26% 


4i 


201 X281 


161 X25i 


16X28 


18%X30% 


4i 


201 X321 


161 X28| 


16X32 


18%X34% 


4* 


201 X361 


161 X32f 


18X18 


20%X20% 


4f 


22%X22% 


181 X181 


18X21 


20%X23% 


4| 


22%X25% 


181 X211 


18X24 


20%X26% 


4f 


22% X 2?% 


181 X241 


18X27 


20%X29% 


4f 


22%X31% 


181 X271 


18X30 


20%X32| 


4f 


22%X34% 


181 X301 


18X36 


20%X38i 


4f 


22%X40% 


181 X361 


20X20 


22| X22| 


5| 


251 X25-| 


20%X20% 


20X24 


22| X26| 


5* 


251 X291 


20%X24% 


20X26* 


22%X28f 


5* 


251 X311 


20%X26% 


21X29 


23f X31| 


5* 


261 X341 


21%X29% 


24X24 


26%X26% 


5| 


29* X29* 


24%X24% 


24X27 


26%X29| 


5f 


29* X32* 


24%X27% 


24X30 


26%x32f 


5| 


29* X35* 


24%X30% 


24X32 


26%x34f 


5| 


29* X37* 


24%X32% 


24X36 


26%x38f 


5| 


29* X41* 


24%X36% 


24X45 


26% X 47| 


61 


29* X50* 


24%X45% 


27X27 


29%X29% 


6 


32* X32* 


27%X27% 


27X38 


29% X 40| 


6* 


32* X43* 


27%X38% 


30X30 


32| X32| 


7! 


35* X35* 


30%X30% 


30X36 


32| X38| 


7f 


35* X41* 


30%X36% 


30X42 


32f X44| 


7| 


35* X47* 


30%X42% 



* These sizes are those most likely to be found in stock of local dealers. 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



151 



ESTIMATED CAPACITY OF PIPES AND REGISTERS. 

ROUND PIPES. 



Diameter 
of Pipe. 


Area in 
Sq. Inches. 


Diameter 
of Pipe. 


Area in 
Sq. Inches. 


Diameter 
of Pipe. 


Area in 
Sq. Inches. 


7 inches 

8 " 

9 " 

10 " 

11 " 


38 
50 
63 

78 
95 


12 inches 
14 " 
16 " 
18 " 
20 " 


113 
154 
201 
254 
314 


22 inches 
24 " 
26 " 
28 " 
30 " 


380 
452 
531 
616 

707 



RECTANGULAR PIPES. 



Size 


Area in 


Size 


Area in 


Size 


Area in 


of Pipe. 


Sq. Inches. 


of Pipe. 


Sq. Inches. 


of Pipe. 


Sq. Inches. 


4X8 


32 


8X20 


160 


12X18 


216 


4X10 


40 


8X24 


192 


12X20 


240 


4X12 


48 


10X12 


120 


12X24 


288 


4X16 


64 


10X15 


150 


14X14 


196 


6X10 


60 


10X16 


160 


14X16 


224 


6X12 


72 


10X18 


180 


14X20 


280 


6-X 16 


96 


10X20 


200 


16X16 


256 


8*X10 


80 


12X12 


144 


16X18 


288 


8X12 


96 


12X15 


180 


16X20 


320 


8X16 


128 


12X16 


192 


16X24 


384 



REGISTERS. 



Size of 


Capacity in 
Sq. Inches. 


Size of 


Capacity in 


Size of 


Capacity in 
Sq. Inches. 


Opening. 


Opening. 


Sq. Inches. 


Opening. 


6X10 


40 


10X14 


93 


20X20 


267 


8X10 


53 


10X16 


107 


20X24 


320 


8X12 


64 


12X15 


120 


20X26 


347 


8X15 


80 


12X19 


152 


21X29 


406 


9X12 


72 


14X22 


205 


27X27 


486 


9X14 


84 


15X25 


250 


27X38 


684 


10X12 


80 


16X24 


256 


30X30 


600 



ROUND REGISTERS. 



Size of 
Opening. 


Capacity in 
Sq. Inches. 


Size of 
Opening. 


Capacity in 
Sq. Inches. 


Size of 
Opening. 


Capacity in 
Sq. Inches. 


7 inches 

8 " 

9 " 

10 ■• 


26 
33 

42 
52 


12 inches 
14 " 
16 4 * 

18 '* 


75 

103 
134 
169 


20 inches 
24 " 
30 V 
36 •' 


209 
301 
471 
679 



152 


MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




VELOCITY 


OF AIR 


DUE TO PRESSURE. 




Temperature 


50° Fahrenheit. 




Pressure in 


Velocity 


Velocity 


Pressure 


Velocity 


Velocity 


Ounces per 


in Feet 


in Feet 


Ounces 


in Feet 


in Feet 


Sq. In. 


per Sec. 


per Min. 


per Sq. In. 


per Sec. 


per Min. 


i 


30.47 


1,828.4 


5 


190.76 


11,445.5 


1 


43.08 


2,585.0 


51 


195.37 


11,722.0 


I 


52.75 


3,165.1 


51 


199.86 


11,991.5 


1 


60.90 


3,653.8 


.5f 


204.25 


12,254.8 


1 


68.07 


4,084.0 


6 


208.53 


12,511.9 


1 


74.54 


4,472.6 


61 


216.82 


13,009.3 


1 


80.50 


4,829.7 


7 


224.77 


13,486.4 




86.03 


5,161.7 


71 


232.42 


13,945.4 


n 


91.22 


5,473.4 


8 


239.80 


14,387.9 


n 


96.13 


5,768.0 


81 


246.92 


14,815.4 


it 


100.80 


6,047.9 


9 


253 . 83 


15,229.6 


ii 


105.25 


6,315.2 


91 


260.52 


15,631.0 


it 


109.52 


6,571.3 


10 


267.00 


16,020.4 


if 


113.64 


6,817.6 


101 


273.32 


16,399.3 


ii 


117.58 


7,055.0 


11 


279.70 


16,768.1 


2 


121.41 


7,284.4 


HI 


285.46 


17,127.6 


2i 


125.11 


7,506.7 


12 


291.30 


17,478.2 


2* 


128.70 


7,722.2 


121 


297.01 


17,820.6 


2| 


132.20 


7,931.8 


13 


302.59 


18,155.2 


21 


135.59 


8,135.7 


131 


308.04 


18,482.4 


2| 


138.91 


8,334.4 


14 


313.38 


18,802.7 


2f 


142.14 


8,528.3 


141 


318.61 


19,116.3 


21 


145.29 


8,717.6 


15 


323.73 


19,423.6 


3 


148.38 


8,902.8 


151 


328.75 


19,725.0 


31 


151.40 


9,084.0 


16 


333.68 


20,020.7 


31 


154.36 


9,261.5 


161 


338.51 


20,310.8 


3! 


157.26 


9,435.4 


17 


343.26 


20,595.8 


31 


160.10 


9,606.1 


171 


347.93 


20,875.8 


3f 


162.89 


9,773.3 


18 


352.52 


21,151.0 


3| 


165.63 


9,938.0 


181 


357.03 


21,421.6 


31 


168.33 


10,099.6 


19 


361.46 


21,687.8 


4 


170.98 


10,258.6 


19£ 


365.83 


21,949.7 


41 


176.15 


10,568.8 


20 


370.13 


22,207.5 


41 
4f 


181.16 


10,869.5 
11,161.5 








186.03 















VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 153 

Effects of Temperature. 

Degrees Fahr. 

Titanium melts at 5432 

Osmium melts at (Pictet) 4532 

Rhodium melts at (Pictet) 3632 

Ruthenium melts at (Devile & Debray) 3632 

Indium melts at ( Violle) 3532 

Platinum melts at (Bredig) 3236 

Palladium melts at (Bredig) 2888 

Tungsten melts at 3092 

Wrought Iron melts at (Pictet) 2912 

Cast Iron melts at (Pouillet) 2786 

Chromium melts at (E. A. Lewis) 2759 

Cobalt melts at (Pictet) 2732 

Nickel melts at (Bredig) 2703 

Copper melts at (Kane) 1996, (Daniel) 2548 

Gold melts at (Kane) 2200, (Morveau) 2518 

Steel melts at 2400 

Manganese melts at 2273 

Silver melts at (Daniel) 2233 

Brass melts at (Daniel) 1869 

Bronze melts at (Roberts-Austin) 1692 

Common Salt (Dr. J. A. Harker) 1472 

Magnesium melts at (Roberts-Austin) 1200 

Antimony melts at (I. Lowithan Bell) 955, (Dr. J. A. Harker) 1169 

Aluminum melts at (Roberts-Austin) 1157 

Iron, bright cherry red (Poilett) 1000 

Iron, red heat, visible in daylight (Daniel) 980 

Sulphur, at 760 mm. pressure, boils at (Dr. J. A. Harker) 833 
Zinc begins to burn at (Daniel) 941, melts at (J. A. Harker) 786 

Mercury boils at (Daniel & Graham) 662 

Zinc melts at (Gmelin & Daniel) 648 

Whale Oil boils at (Graham) 630 

Sulphuric Acid boils at (Philips) 545, (Graham) 620 

Pure Lead melts at (Parks) 612, (Daniel) 609 

Cadmium melts at (Person) 609 

Bismuth melts at (Gmelin) 518, (Philips) 476 

Tin melts at (Person) 422 

Arsenious Acid volatilizes at 380 

Metallic Arsenic sublimes at 356 

Indium melts at 348 

Oil of Turpentine boils at (Kane) 315 

Etherfication ends at 302 

Linseed Oil boils at. . . 260 

Sat. Solution of Sal Ammoniac boils at (Taylor) 257 

Sat. Solution of Acetate of Soda boils at 256 

Sat. Solution of Nitric Acid 1-42 boils at 248 

Sat. Solution of Sal Soda 1-4 boils at 248 

Sat. Solution of Niter boils at 238 

Sulphur melts at (Turner) 232, (Fownes) 226 



154 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Degrees Fahr. 

Sat. Solution of Alum, Carb. of Soda & Sul. of Zinc boils at 220 

Sat. Solution of Chlorate and Prussiate of Potash boils at . . 218 
Sat. Solution of Sulph. of Iron, Sulph. of Copper and Nitrate 

of Lead boils at 216 

Sat. Solution of Acetate of Lead, Sulph. and Bitartrate of 

Potash boils at 214 

Water begins to boil in glass at 213 

Water begins to boil in metal, barometer at 30, at 212 

Alloy of 5 Bismuth, 3 Tin, 2 Lead melts at 211 

Alloy of 8 Bismuth, 5 Lead, 3 Tin, melts at (Kane) 201 

Sodium begins to melt at 194 

Starch dissolves in water at 180 

Rectified Spirit boils at 176 

Benzole distills at 176 

Alcohol, sp. gr. 0.796 to 0.800, boils at 173 

Beeswax melts at 151 (Kane) 151 

Pyroxylic Spirit boils at (Scanlan) 150 

Chloroform and Ammonia of 0.945 boils at 140 

Potassium melts at (Daniel) 136 

Acetone, Pyroacetic Spirit, boils at (Kane) 132 

Mutton Suet and Styracine melts at 122 

Bisulphide of Carbon boils at (Graham) 116 

Pure Tallow melts at (Lepage) 115 

Spermaceti and Stearine of Lard melts at 112 

Phosphorus melts at 99 

Ether, 0.720 boils at (temperature of the blood) 98 

Acetous fermentation ceases at 88 

Water boils in a vacuum at 88 

Vineous fermentation ends, acetous fermentation begins at 77 

Oil of Anise liquefies at 62 

Sulphuric Acid, sp. gr. 1.741, congeals at 42 

Olive Oil freezes at 36 

Water freezes at 32 

Milk freezes at 30 

Vinegar freezes at 28 

Wine freezes at 20 

Cold produced by snow and salt 

Brandy freezes at -7 

Mercury freezes at -40 

Liquid Oxygen boils at (Dr. J. A. Harker) -295 

Liquid Oxygen freezes or solidifies at -400 

Liquid Hydrogen boils at (Dr. J. A. Harker) -423 



Temperature of Flames. 

According to the results of recent experiments the flame of 
acetylene is perhaps the hottest known except that of the electric 
arc. The following figures have been given by Mr. Maffi: Bunsen 
burner, 1871°; acetylene flame, 2548°; alcohol flame, 1705°; 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



155 



Denayrouze burner, half alcohol, half petroleum, 2053°; hydro- 
gen flame, in air, 1900°; gas jet flame, with oxygen, 2200°; 
oxyhydrogen flame, 2420°. These are all Centigrade degrees. 



FUSION OF ALLOYS OF BISMUTH, TIN AND LEAD. 



Bis- 
muth 


Lead 
Parts. 


Tin 
Parts. 


Tempera- 
ture. De- 


Bis- 
muth 


Lead 
Parts. 


Tin 
Parts. 


Tempera- 
ture. De- 


Parts. 






grees F. 


Parts. 






grees F. 


8 


5 


3 


202 


8 


16 


24 


316 


8 


6 


3 


208 


8 


18 


24 


312 


8 


8 


3 


226 


8 


20 


24 


310 


8 


8 


4 


236 


8 


"22 


24 


308 


8 


8 


6 


243 


8 


24 


24 


310 


8 


8 


8 


254 


8 


26 


24 


320 


8 


10 


8 


266 


8 


28 


24 


330 


8 


12 


8 


270 


8 


30 


24 


342 


8 


16 


8 


300 


8 


32 


24 


352 


8 


16 


10 


304 


8 


32 


28 


332 


8 


16 


12 


294 


8 


32 


30 


328 


8 


16 


14 


290 


8 


32 


32 


320 


8 


16 


16 


292 


8 


32 


34 


318 


8 


16 


18 


298 


8 


32 


36 


320 


8 


16 


20 


304 


8 


32 


38 


322 


8 


16 


22 


312 


8 


32 


40 


324 



CONTENTS OF MARBLE SLABS. 

The following tables will enable any person to compute the 
superficial contents of Marble Slabs from 6 X 12 to 47 X 62, 
the figures in the upper line showing the widths of Slabs, and 
figures in vertical column showing the lengths wanted. 

To get the total polished surface add 1 inch for each finished 
edge. 

For example: To ascertain the contents of a Slab 30 X 24 
inches, with back 8 inches high, add 1 inch for each finished edge, 
making the Slab 32 X 25 inches, and size of back 32 X 9 inches. 
Find in side column the length, 32 inches, and in upper line the 
width, 25 inches. To the right of the 32-inch, and below the 
25-inch size, will be found the contents of the Slab, 5 feet 7 inches. 
In the same manner find contents of back, 2 feet. Total, 7 feet 
7 inches. Find contents of ends in same manner. 

The inches in the tables indicate twelfths of a square foot. 



156 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 






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VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



157 





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158 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LENGTH OF WIPE JOINTS FOR LEAD PIPE. 



Diameter 


Length 


Diameter 


Length 


Diameter 


Length 


Pipe, 


Joint, 


Pipe, 


Joint, 


Pipe, 


Joint, 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches 


i 


2i 


\\ water 


H 


2 waste 


2i 


1 


2* 


1 \ waste 


2 


2\ waste 


%\ 


4 


2! 


1J water 


34 


3 waste 


n 


1 


3 


1J waste 


21 


4 waste 


3 



Solder Required for Wipe Joints. 

\ inch pipe takes f pound. 

| inch pipe takes 1 pound. 

1 inch pipe takes \\ pounds. 

\\ inch pipe takes 1^ pounds. 

1^. inch pipe takes 1| pounds. 

If inch pipe takes 2 pounds. 

2 inch pipe takes 2 \ pounds. 

Branch Pipe. 

\\ inch pipe. . . . , 9 oz. 

1^ inch pipe 9^ oz. 

2 inch pipe 10^ oz. 

Amounts liberal for good sized joint. 



Shaving for Lead Joints. 

Diameter. Shaving. 

h inch 2^ in. long. 

| inch 2| in. long. 

1 inch 3 in. long. 

1-1- inch 3£ in. long. 

\\ inch 3^ in. long. 

2 inch 4 in. long. 

3 inch 3^ in.-4 in. long. 

4 inch 3£ in.-4 in. long. 

5 inch and all 

sizes over . 4 in. long. 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



159 



WEIGHT OF LEAD REQUIRED FOR JOINTS OF CAST IRON 
SOCKET PIPES. 



Diameter of Pipe, 


Weight Lead, 


Diameter of Pipe, 


Weight Lead, 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


2 


2 


10 


12 


2h 


2* 


11 


131 


3 


3 


12 


15 


4 


3| 


14 


18 


5 


6 


15 


22 


6 


7 


16 


24 


7 


8 


18 


25 


8 


9 


20 


27 


9 


m 


24 


38 



SPACING OF LEAD PIPE TACKS. 



Size of Pipe, 
Inches. 


Vertical Pipe, Inches. 


Horizontal Pipe, Inches. 












Hot. 


Cold. 


Hot. 


Cold. 


I 


18 


24 


12 


16 


h 


19 


25 


14 


17 


f 


20 


26 


15 


18 


f 


21 


27 


16 


19 


l 


22 


28 


17 


20 


H 


23 


29 


18 


21 


l* 


24 


30 


18 


22 



Tacks are spaced closer on hot than on cold pipes, as lead is 
much more liable to sag when heated. 



FUSING POINTS OF 


SOLDER. 




Percentage, Tin. 


Percentage, Lead. 


Fusing Point. 


83.3 


16.7 






401° F. 


69.5 


30.5 






368.6° F. 


63.0 


37.0 






357. 8°F. 


53.2 


46.8 






368.6° F. 


50.0 


50.0 






395.6° F. 


45.6 


54.4 






410° F. 


36.2 


63.8 






455° F. 


27.2 


72.8 






474.8° F. 


22.1 


77.9 






518° F. 


15.9 


84.1 






541° F. 


12.4 


87.6 






557.6° F. 



Solder fuses at a lower temperature than either component. 



160 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

MELTING POINTS OF FUSIBLE PLUGS. 





Softens. 


Melts at 


2 tin 2 lead 


365° 
372° 
377^° 
395£° 


372° 


2 tin 6 lead 


383° 


2 tin 7 lead 


388° 


2 tin 8 lead 


408° 








Offset using 11M "elbows 




Lengths of Diagonals of Offsets. 

The following table gives the lengths of diagonals of angles 
of 45, 22^, and 11 1 degrees, or offsets using elbows of these 

angles as shown in 
~P Fig. 62. For instance 
it is desired to make 
an offset in a run of 
pipe at an angle of 
22^ degrees, and the 
distance A is known 
as, say 1 ft. 7 in. ; We 
look in the table 
under length of A, 
and find 1 ft. 7 in., 
and continuing this 
line out to the dia- 
gonal column for 22^ 
degree angle we find 
1 ft. 8^ in., which is 
the length of the dia- 
gonal to make the 
desired offset measur- 
ing from centers of 
the fittings, as shown. 
In case the distance 
C or short leg is 
known then find that 
length in the short leg column under the desired angle and the 
diagonal will be given in the diagonal column under this angle. 

In using this table the measurements must always be taken 
from the center of the fitting. 



Offset using 22% elbows 





SOl 


< 


Offset using 45 °elbows // 
/ / / 


r i 

9 

i 
i 
i 




£1 Z0S---A- 





B=The diagonal in table 
C- The short side in table 

Fig. 62. Diagram of Offsets. 



VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



161 



TABLE OF ANGLES OR OFFSETS. 





Length of Diagonal. 


Length of 


45 


3 Angle 


22^° Angle. 


111° Angle 




Leg A. 


or 


Offset. 


or Offset. 


or Offset. 






Diagonal. 


Short Leg. 


Diagonal. 


Short Leg. 


Diagonal. 


ft. in. 


ft. 


in. 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


in. 


ft. 


in. 


1 




:ia 


7 
16 


ift 


3 
16 




1 


2 




2« 


» 


2ft 


f 




2 Y 


3 




41 


H 


31 


f 




3t¥ 


4 




5f 


itt 


4ft 


13 
16 




4ft 


5 




7ft 


2l6 


5ft 


1 




51 


6 




8* 


2i 


6i 


1* 




61 


7 




91 


21 


7ft 


1! 




71 


8 




1 1-5- 
xl 16 


qL5_ 
°16 


sii 

°16 


ift 




81 


9 




12| 


31 


9| 


in 




Q 3 
y T6 


10 




21 


41 


ion 


2 




10ft 


11 




3ft 


4ft 


HI 


2ft 




lift 


12 




5 


5 


1 1 


2f 




1 

4 


1 1 




6f 


5f 


1 2ft 


2* 




11 


1 2 




Jtt 


5H 


1 31 


2f 




2ft 


1 3 




q_3_ 


61 


1 41 


3 




3ft 


1 4 




lOf 


6H 


1 p;_5_ 

1 °16 


Q_3_ 
°16 




4ft 


1 5 


2 


A 


7ft 


1 6| 


3f 




5| 


1 6 


2 


ift 


7| 


1 7| 


3ft 




8| 


1 7 


2 


21 


71 


1 8 9 
1 °16 


31 




7f 


1 8 


2 


4ft 


8ft 


1 9f 


3H 




81 


1 9 


2 


5ft 


81 


1 lOf 


4ft 




9ft 


1 10 


2 


74 


91 


1 H« 


4f 




10ft 


1 11 


2 


81 


Q 9 
y 16 


2 1 


4ft 




lift 


2 


2 


015 
3 16 


Q15 
y 16 


2 2 


4f 


2 


1 


2 1 


2 


111 


lOf 


2 3ft 


4*§ 


2 


If 


2 2 


3 


1 


101 


2 41 


51 


2 


2ft 


2 3 


3 


2ft 


lift 


2 51 


5f 


2 


3ft 


2 4 


3 


q 5 


111 


2 6ft 


5ft 


2 


4ft 


2 5 


3 


5 


1 


2 7f 


51 


2 


5f 


2 6 


3 


6ft 


1 ft 


2 81 


f;i5 

u 16 


2 


6| 


2 .7 


3 


m 


i ift 


2 9ft 


61 


2 


7f 


2 8 


3 


91 


i U 


2 10| 


6ft 


2 


8f 


2 9 


3 


iott 


i itt 


2 Mtt 


6ft 


2 


9H 


2 10 


4 


i 

T6~ 


1 2ft 


3 If 


61 


2 


ion 


2 11 


4 


1* 


1 *i 


3 11 


6H 


2 


lift 


3 


4 


015 
^16 


1 2if 


3 2tf 


7ft 


3 


tt 



162 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLE OF ANGLES OR OFFSETS. — Continued. 











Length of Diagonal. 






Length of 


















Leg A. 


45 c 


Angle 




22£° 


Angl 


3 


ll£° Angle 




or 


Offset. 




or Offset 




or Offset 




Sides. 


Diagonal. 


Short Leg. 


Diagonal. 


Short Leg. 


Diagonal. 


ft. in. 


ft. 


in. 


ft. 


in. 


ft. 


in. 


ft. in. 


ft. 


in. 


3 1 


4 


4A 




Q_5_ 
°16 


3 


4* 


7| 


3 


Hi 


3 2 


4 


Si 




3f 


3 


5* 


7* 


3 


2| 


3 3 


4 


7^ 




4* 


3 


6* 


7H 


3 


3f 


3 4 


4 


8* 




4* 


3 


7* 


8 


3 


4f 


3 5 


4 


10 




5 


3 


8f 


8 3 
°T6 


3 


5M 


3 6 


4 


Hf 




°8 


3 


9A 


8f 


3 


8« 


3 7 


5 


if 




5tf 


3 


10* 


8* 


3 


7if 


3 8 


5 


21 




61 


3 


Hf 


8! 


3 


8« 


3 9 


5 


3f 




6f 


4 


tt 


9 


3 


91 


3 10 


5 


5^ 




7^ 


4 


lit 


03 
y 16 


3 


101 


3 11 


5 


6A 




7^ 


4 


21 


9| 


3 


HI 


4 


5 


71 




7| 


4 


3tf 


9* 


4 


if 


4 1 


5 


M* 




8A 


4 


5* 


9f 


4 


lit 


4 2 


5 


iott 




8ft 


4 


6| 


»tt 


4 


3 


4 3 


6 


1 




n 


4 


7* 


10* 


4 


4 


4 4 


6 


ift 




9* 


4 


8* 


10f 


4 


5 


4 5 


6 


2M 




9« 


4 


9f 


10* 


4 


6* 


4 6 


6 


4| 




lOf 


4 


io* 


iof 


4 


7* 


4 7 


6 


5! 




lOf 


4 


m 


10tf 


4 


8* 


4 8 


6 


7if 




n* 


5 


t 


ii* 


4 


9* 


4 9 


6 


8| 




HI 


5 


14* 


ill 


4 


10| 


4 10 


6 


10 


2 





5 


2| 


ill 


4 


114 


4 11 


6 


U& 


2 


_7_ 
16 


5 


3* 


HM 


5 


h 


5 


7 


1 


2 


1 


5 


*tt 


1 


5 


i* 


5 1 


7 


21 


2 


H 


5 


6 


1 * 


5 


2* 


5 2 


7 


Oil 

■JT6 


2 


itt 


5 


7| 


1 3. 

1 8 


5 


31 


5 3 


7 


5A 


2 


2| 


5 


8* 


1 & 
1 f 


5 


41 


5 4 


7 


61 


2 


2* 


5 


91 


1 if 


5 


51 


5 5 


7 


7'tt 


2 


2M 


5 


10f 


1 1 


5 


6* 


5 6 


7 


015. 
y 16 


2 


3* 


5 


I 1 -3- 

II 16 


1 1* 


5 


7* 


5 7 


7 


lOf 


2 


3f 


6 


* 


1 If 


5 


8* 


5 8 


8 


T6 


2 


4* 


6 


If 


1 1* 


5 


9* 


5 9 


8 


1-9- 

X 16 


2 


4A 


6 


2H 


1 If 


5 


10f 


5 10 


8 


3 


2 


5 


6 


31 


1 lit 


5 


Hf 


5 11 


8 


4^ 


2 


5| 


6 


4| 








6 


8 


5tf 


2 


5tf 


6 


6*1 









VARIOUS COMPUTATION TABLES 



163 



The length of the diagonal B., Fig. 62, can also be found by 
multiplying the length of the offset or short leg by the following 
multiples: 

45 degrees, offset, multiply by 

60 



30 

22i 

Hi 

5f 



1.414 
1.150 
2.000 
2.610 
5.120 
10.20 



Or by multiplying the long leg by the following 
5| degrees, offset, multiply by 1.004 

Hi 



22| 
30 
45 
60 



1.019 
1.082 
1.150 
1.414 
2.000 



Computing Sizes of Drains. 

There is no definite rule for figuring the sizes of drains, and it 
is more or less a matter of judgment. The following, taken from 
the Cleveland Plumbing ordinance, is believed to be a safe rule 
to follow. 

Twenty square feet roof or yard area counts as 1 fixture. 

Three feet of urinal trough or wash sink counts as 1 fixture. 

One bath, basin, or sink counts as 1 fixture. 

One pedestal urinal or slop sink counts as 2 fixtures. 

One water-closet counts as 4 fixtures. 

In connection with the above the sizes of drains are given as 
follows : 



Size Main 
Drain. 


Soil, Waste and 
Rain Water. 


Soil and Waste. 


Soil Alone. 


4 in. 


163 fix. or less 


72 fixtures 


12 w.c. 


5 in. 


300 fix. or less 


144 fixtures 


25 w.c. 


6 in. 


488 fix. or less 


250 fixtures 


42 w.c. 


7 in. 


722 fix. or less 


410 fixtures 


70 w.c. 


8 in. 


1000 fix. or less 


610 fixtures 


105 w.c. 


9 in. 


1334 fix. or less 


850 fixtures 


145 w.c. 


10 in. 


1750 fix. or less 


1200 fixtures 


200 w.c. 



164 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLES OF STANDARD DIAMETERS, OF FLANGES, 

AND DRILLING AND BOLTING OF 

FLANGED VALVES. 

Dimensions given are those adopted by the Master Steam 
and Hot Water Fitters' Association, the Society of Mechanical 
Engineers of the United States, and Valve and Fitting Manu- 
facturers. This standard is commonly known as the "Steam 
Fitters' Standard." 



FOR " LIGHT " 


VALVES 












Sizes, Inches. 




6 

11 

8 

f 


8 

m 

hi 

8 

5 

8 


10 

16 
HI 

12 

f 


12 

19 
17 
12 
f 


14 

21 

181 

12 

1 


15 

22^ 

20 

16 

1 


16 


Diameter of flanges 

Diameter of bolt circle 

Number of bolts 


23i 
21i 
16 


Size of bolts (Diam.) 


1 




Sizes, Inches. 




18 

25 

22f 

16 

1 


20 

27| 

25 

20 

1 


24 

31| 

29i 
20 

1 


30 

38 
351 
28 
11 


36 


42 


48 


Diameter of flanges 


44i 

42 

32 


51 
48i 
36 
1* 


571 


Diameter of bolt circle 

Number of bolts 


541 
44 


Size of bolts (Diam.) 


If 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



165 



FOR 



STANDARD " VALVES, AND FOR " VALVES FOR 125 
POUNDS WORKING STEAM PRESSURE." 



Diameter of flanges 

Diameter of bolt circle 

Number of bolts 

Size of bolts (Diam.) j 

According to pressure \ 



Sizes, Inches. 



2* 


3 


3* 


4 


7 


n 


8* 


9 


5* 


6 


7 


n 


4 


4 


4 


4 


h 


i 

2 


* 


5 
8 


5 

8 


t 


5 
8 


1 
i 



Sizes, Inches. 



Diameter of flanges 

Diameter of bolt circle 

Number of bolts 

Size of bolts (Diam.) 

According to pressure 



10 
8 

5 

8 

4 



6 


7 


8 


9 


11 


m 


13* 


15 


n 


10| 


11| 


13| 


8 


8 


8 


12 


f 


5 

8 


* 


# 


i 


1 


* 


I 



Sizes, Inches. 



Diameter of flanges 

Diameter of bolt circle 

Number of bolts 

Size of bolts (Diam.) 

According to pressure 



14 


16 


18 


20 


21 


23* 


25 


27i 


18| 


2U 


22f 


25 


12 


16 


16 


20 


* 


7 
8 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1.4 


H 



Diameter of flanges 

Diameter of bolt circle 

Number of bolts 

Size of bolts (Diam.) 

According to pressure 



Sizes, Inches. 



24 30 36 42 48 



32 

29* 

20 

1 

H 



38f 

36 
28 
1* 

n 



45| 

42f 
32 

H 
If 



52f 

49* 

36 
H 
H 



166 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



The following table is adapted by the leading Valve and Fitting 
Manufacturers. 



FOR " MEDIUM HEAVY " AND " EXTRA HEAVY " VALVES. 





Sizes, Inches. 




2* 


3 

6f 

8 

f 


31 

9 
71 

8 

I 


4 

10 

71 
8 

3 


41 


5 


6 


7 


Diameter of flanges 

Diameter of bolt circle. . 

Number of bolts 

Size of bolts. . . . (Diam.) 


71 
4 

3 
4 


101 

8 

3 


11 

91 

8 

3 
i 


121 

101 
12 
I 


14 

HI 
12 

1 





Sizes, Inches. 




8 

15 
13 
12 

7 
8 


9 

16 
14 

12 

i 


10 

17* 
151 
16 

7 
8 


12 

20 

17| 

16 

7 
8 


14 

221 

20 

20 

7 
8 


16 

25 

221 

20 

1 


18 

27 

241 

24 

1 


20 


Diameter of flanges 

Diameter of bolt circle. . 

Number of bolts 

Size of bolts — (Diam.) 


291 
26| 
24 
11 



WEIGHT, ETC., OF SKYLIGHT GLASS. 

THE WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SIZES AND THICKNESSES OF 

FLUTED OR PLATE GLASS REQUIRED FOR ONE 

SQUARE OF ROOF. 

1 Square = 100 Square Feet. 

Dimensions in inches 12 x 48 15 X 60 20 X 100 94 X 156 

Thicknesses in inches 3| 1 f \ 

Area in square feet 3.997 6.246 13.880 101.768 

Weight in lbs. per square of roof 250 350 500 700 

In the above table no allowance is made for lap. 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 167 

DIMENSIONS, ETC., OF STANDARD PIPE FLANGES. 

A. S. M. E. & M. S. F. A. 

July 14, 1894. 





100 Pounds Pressure per Square Inch. 






Flange. 


Radius 


Bolts. 


Pipe 












Diam., 


Diameter, 


Thickness, 


of Bolts, 
Inches. 


Num- 


Size, 


Stress per 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


ber. 


Inches. 


Sq. In. 


2 


6 


I 


2f 


4 


i 

2 


628 


2i 


7 


tt 


2f 


4 


* 


980 


3 


7i 


f 


3 


4 


h 


1400 


3* 


H 


if 


3i 


4 


i 

2 


1924 


4 


9 


« 


3f 


4 


5 

8 


1570 


4* 


9£ 


if 


3| 


8 


f 


984 


5 


10 


if 


4£ 


8 


f 


1215 


6 


11 


1 


4H 


8 


5 

8 


1749 


7 


m 


1A 


5| 


8 


f 


2381 


8 


m 


i* 


51 


8 


5 

8 


3110 


9 


15 


i* 


6i 


12 


f 


2624 


10 


16 


i* 


7* 


12 


| 


2167 


12 


19 


H 


8i 


12 


4 


3118 


14 


21 


if 


9f 


12 


7 
8 


3065 


15 


22i 


if 


10 


16 


7 
8 


2636 


16 


23i 


1A 


lQf 


16 


1 


3000 


18 


25 


i* 


lit 


16 




2891 


20 


27i 


itt 


12* 


20 




2855 


22 


29i 


lit 


13f 


20 




3455 


24 


31i 


H 


14f. 


20 




4112 


26 


33f 


if 


15§ 


24 




4022 


28 


36 


lif 


16f 


28 




4000 


30 


38 


1* 


171 


28 


1* 


3643 


36 


441 


if 


21 


32 


1 1 
l 8 


4627 


42 


51 


if 


24| 


36 


11 


6205 


48 


57£ 


2 


27| 


44 


If 


3900 



168 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



DIMENSIONS, ETC., OF STANDARD PIPE FLANGES.— Continued. 
200 Pounds Pressure per Square Inch. 





Flange. 


Radius 

of Bolts, 

Inches. 


Bolts. 


Pipe 
Diam . , 
Inches. 


Diameter, 
Inches. 


Thickness, 
Inches. 


Num- 
ber. 


Size, 
Inches. 


Stress per 
Sq. In. 


2 

21 

3 

31 

4 

4* 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 
12 
14 
15 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 
36 
42 
48 


6 

7 

71 

8* 

9 

9i 

10 
11 

13* 

131 

15 

16 

19 

21 

22| 

23i 

25 

27i 

29| 

32 

34i 

36i 

381 

451 

521 

59i 


1 
n 

T6 

f 

« 

15 
16 

If 

1 

1* 

11 

H 

i* 

li 

if 

if 

i& 

1* 

itt 

in 

2 

2^ 

2* 

2f 

2f 

21 


' 2| 

5 
^8 

3 

31 

3| 

31 

41 

4{f 

5f 

51 

«1 

71 

81 

9f 

10 

lOf 

HI 

121 

13f 

141 

151 

17 

18 

211 
241 

28 


4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 

12 
12 
12 
12 
16 
16 
16 
20 
20 
20 
24 
28 
28 
32 
36 
44 


f 

5 

8 

f 
5 

8 

1 

3 

i 

I 
3 
4 

I 
1 
8 
7 
8 

1 

1 

1 

li 

11 

H 
U 

11 
H 

if 
if 
11 
11 


777 
1214 
1749 
2381 
2080 
1316 
1625 
2340 
3185 
4165 
3510 
3142 
4520 
2332 
4017 
4570 
4582 
4526 
4266 
5076 
5000 
4926 
4126 
6000 
5949 
6350 



BRASS TUBING. 

Brass tubing is usually sold in 12-foot lengths, but can be 
furnished in 16-foot lengths if ordered from the mill. 

Annealed tubing is best for bending purposes, and the Half 
Hard is best adapted for general use. 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



169 



FLOW OF WATER IN HOUSE-SERVICE PIPES. 
(Thomson Meter Co.) 





id 

cat—' 

fl co 
"* u 

Ah 
30 


Discharge in 


Cubic Feet per Minute from the Pipe. 


Condition 
of Dis- 
charge. 


Nominal Diameters of Iron or Lead Service-pipe in 
Inches. 




1 10 


I 
1 92 


3 


1 


li 


2 


3 


4 


6 


Through 35 


3 01 


6.13 


16.58 


33.34 


88.16 


173.85 


444.63 


feet of 


40 


1 .27 


2 22 


3.48 


7.08 


19.14 


38.50 


101.80 


200.75 


513.42 


service- 


50 


1 42 


2.48 


3,89 


7.92 


21.40 


43.04 


113.82 


224.44 


574.02 


pipe, no 


60 


1 ,56 


2.71 


4.26 


8.67 


23.44 


47.15 


124.68 


245 . 87 


628.81 


back 


75 


1 .74 


3 . 03 


4.77 


9.70 


26.21 


52.71 


139.39 


274.89 


703.03 


pressure. 


100 


2.01 


3 . 50 


5.50 


11.20 


30.27 


60.87 


160.96 


317.41 


811.79 




130 


2.29 


3.99 


6.28 


12.77 


34.51 


69.40 


183.52 


361.91 


925.58 


Through 


30 


0.66 


1 .16 


1.84 


3.78 


10.40 


21.30 


58.19 


118.13 


317.23 


100 feet of 


40 


77 


1 ,34 


2.12 


4.36 


12.01 


24.59 


67.19 


136.41 


366.30 


service- 


50 


0.S6 


1 .50 


2.37 


4.88 


13.43 


27.50 


75.13 


152.51 


409 . 54 


pipe, no 


60 


0.94 


1 .65 


2.60 


5.34 


14.71 


30.12 


82.30 


167.06 


448.63 


back 


75 


1.05 


1 .84 


2.91 


5.97 


16.45 


33.68 


92.01 


186.78 


501.58 


pressure. 


100 


1.22 


2.13 


3.36 


6.90 


18.99 


38.89 


106.24 


215.68 


579.18 




130 


1.39 


2.42 


3.83 


7.86 


21.66 


44.34 


121.14 


245.91 


660.36 


Through 


30 


0.55 


0.96 


1.52 


3.11 


8.57 


17.55 


47.90 


97.17 


260.56 


100 feet of 


40 


66 


1.15 


1 81 


3.72 


10.24 


20.95 


57.20 


116.01 


311.09 


service-. 


50 


0.75 


1 ,31 


2.06 


4.24 


11.67 


23.87 


65.18 


132.20 


354.49 


pipe and 


60 


0.83 


1 .45 


2.29 


4.70 


12.94 


26.48 


72.28 


146.61 


393 . 13 


15 feet 


75 


0.94 


1 .64 


2.59 


5.32 


14.64 


29.96 


81.79 


165.90 


444.85 


vertical 


100 


1 10 


1 .92 


3 02 


6.21 


17.10 


35.00 


95.55 


193.82 


519.72 


rise. 


130 


1.26 


2.20 


3.48 


7.14 


19.66 


40.23 


109 . 82 


222.75 


597.31 


Through 


30 


0.44 


0.77 


1 22 


2.50 


6,80 


14.11 


38.63 


78.54 


211.54 


100 feet of 


40 


55 


0,97 


1 . 53 


3.15 


8.68 


17.79 


48.68 


98.98 


266.59 


service- 


50 


. 65 


1 .14 


1.79 


3.69 


10.16 


20.82 


56.98 


115.87 


312.08 


pipe and 


60 


73 


1 28 


2.02 


4.15 


11.45 


23.47 


64.22 


130.59 


351 . 73 


30 feet 


75 


84 


1 47 


2.32 


4.77 


13.15 


26.95 


73.76 


149.99 


403.98 


vertical 


100 


1 00 


1 74 


?, 7F, 


5.65 


15.58 


31.93 


87.38 


177.67 


478.55 


rise. 


130 


1.15 


2.02 


3.19 


6 . 55 


18.07 


37.02 


101.33 


206.04 554.96 



TEMPERATURES. 
The following table affords a somewhat rough method of 
itimating high temperature. 



Just glowing in the dark 

Dark red 

Cherry red 

Bright cherry red 

Orange 

White 

Dazzling white 



Centigrade 


Fahrenheit 


Degrees. 


Degrees. 


525 


977 


700 


1252 


908 


1666 


1000 


1832 


1150 


2102 


1300 


2372 


1500 


2732 



170 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LINEAR EXPANSION OF SUBSTANCES BY HEAT. 

To find the increase in the length of a bar of any material due 
to an increase of temperature, multiply the number of degrees 
of increase of temperature by the coefficient for 100 degrees and 
by the length of the bar and divide by 100. 



Name of Substance. 



Baywood (in the direction of the 
grain, dry) 

Brass (cast) 

" (wire) 

Brick (fire) 

Cement (Roman) 

Copper 

Deal (in the direction of the grain, 

dry) 

Glass (English flint) 

" (French white lead) 

Gold 

Granite (average) 

Iron (cast) 

" (soft forged) 

" (wire) 

Lead 

Marble (Carrara) < 

Mercury 

Platinum 

Sandstone 

Silver 

Slate (Wales) 

Water (varies considerably with 

the temperature) 

Tin 

Zinc 



Coefficient 

for 100° 

Fahrenheit. 


Coefficient 

for 180° 

Fahrenheit, 

or 100 




Centigrade. 


.00026 


.00046 


to 


to 


.00031 


.00057 


.00104 


.00188 


.00107 


.00193 


.0003 


.0005 


.0008 


.0014 


.0009 


.0017 


.00024 


. 00044 


.00045 


.00081 


. 00048 


.00087 


.0008 


.0015 


.00047 


.00085 


.0006 


.0011 


.0007 


.0012 


.0008 


.0014 


.0016 


.0029 


.00036 


.00065 


to 


to 


.0006 


.0011 


.0033 


.0060 


.0005 


.0009 


.0005 


.0009 


to 


to 


.0007 


.0012 


.0011 


.002 


.0006 


.001 


.0086 


.0155 


.0003 


.0069 


.0004 


.0088 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



171 



NUMBER OF U. S. GALLONS IN RECTANGULAR TANKS. 
For One Foot in Depth. 



3-s 


Length of Tank in Feet. 


2£ 


2 


2.5 


3 


3.5 


4 


4.5 


5 


5.5 


6 


6.5 


7 


2 

2.5 
3 


29.92 


37.40 
46.75 


44.88 
56.10 
67.32 


52.36 
65.45 
78.54 
91.64 


59.84 

74.80 

89.77 

104.73 

119.69 


67.32 
84.16 
100.99 
117.82 
134.65 
151 . 48 


74.81 
93.51 
112.21 
130.91 
149.61 
168. 31 
187.01 


82.29 
102.86 
123.43 
144.00 
164.57 
185. 14 
205.71 
226.28 


89.77 
112.21 
134.65 
157.09 
179.53 
201.97 
224.41 
246.86 
269.30 


97.25 
121.56 
145.87 
170. 18 
194.49 
218.80 
243.11 
267.43 
291.74 
316.05 


104.73 
130.91 
157.09 


3.5 






183.27 


4 








209.45 


4.5 










235.63 


5 












261.82 


5.5 














288 00 


6 
















314.18 


6.5 


















340. 36 


7. 




















366 54 





























Length of Tank in Feet. 


2® 


7.5 


8 


8.5 


9 


9.5 


10 


10.5 


11 


11.5 


12 


2 

2.5 

3 

3.5 

4 

4.5 

5 

5.5 

6 

6.5 

7 

7.5 

8 

8.5 


112.21 
140.26 
168.31 
196.36 
224.41 
252.47 
280.52 
308.57 
336.62 
364.67 
392.72 
420. 78 


119.69 
149.61 
179.53 
209.45 
239.37 
269.30 
299. 22 
329.14 
359.06 
388.98 
418.91 
448.83 
478.75 


127. 17 
158.96 
190. 75 
222.54 
254.34 
286.13 
317.92 
349.71 
381.50 
413.30 
445.09 
476.88 
508.67 
540.46 


134.65 
168.31 
202.97 
235.63 
269.30 
302.96 
336.62 
370. 28 
403.94 
437.60 
471.27 
504.93 
538.59 
572.25 
605.92 


142. 13 
177.66 
213.19 
248.73 
284.26 
319.79 
355.32 
390.85 
426.39 
461.92 
497.45 
532.98 
568.51 
604.05 
639.58 
675. 11 


149. 61 
187.01 
224.41 
261.82 
299.22 
336.62 
374. 03 
411.43 
448. 83 
486.23 
523.64 
561.04 
598.44 
635.84 
673.25 
710. 65 
748.05 


157.09 
196.36 
235.63 
274.90 
314.18 
353.45 
392.72 
432.00 
471.27 
510.54 
549.81 
589.08 
628.36 
667. 63 
706.90 
746. 17 
785.45 
824.73 


164.57 
205.71 
246.86 
288.00 
329. 14 
370.28 
411.43 
452.57 
493.71 
534.85 
575.99 
617.14 
658.28 
699.42 
740.56 
781.71 
822.86 
864.00 
905. 14 


172.05 
215.06 
258.07 
301.09 
344. 10 
387.11 
430. 13 
473.14 
516.15 
559. 16 
602.18 
645. 19 
688.20 
731.21 
774.23 
817.24 
860.26 
903.26 
946.27 
989.29 


179.53 
224.41 
269.30 
314. 18 
359.06 
403.94 
448.83 
493.71 
538.59 
583.47 
628.36 
673.24 
718. 12 
763.00 


9 






807. 89 


9.5 








852.77 


10 










897 66 


10.5 












942 56 


11 














987. 43 


11.5 
















1032 3 


12 


















1077.2 



Example. — To find number of gallons in a rectangular tank 
that is 7.5 feet by 10 feet, the water being 4 feet deep: Look in 
extreme left-hand column for 7.5, and opposite to this in col- 
umn headed 10 read 561.04, which being multiplied by 4, the 
depth of water in the tank, gives 2244.2, the number of gallons 
required. 

WEIGHT OF ROUGH GLASS PER SQUARE FOOT. 



Thickness, inches f 

Weight, pounds 2 



2* 



8i 10 



1 
12* 



172 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



NUMBER OF GALLONS IN ROUND CISTERNS AND TANKS. 



Diameter in Feet. 



5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


735 

881 

1,028 

1,175 

1,322 


1,060 
1,270 
1,480 
1,690 
1,900 


1,440 

1,728 
2,016 
2,304 
2,592 


1,875 
2,250 
2,625 
3,000 
3,375 


2,380 
2,855 
3,330 
3,805 
4,280 


2,925 
3,510 
4,095 
4,680 
5,265 


3,550 
4,260 
4,970 
5,680 
6,390 


4,237 
5,084 
5,931 
6,778 
7,625 


1,489 
1,616 
1,762 
1,909 
2,056 


2,110 
2,320 
2,530 
2,740 
2,950 


2,880 
3,168 
3,456 
3,744 
4,032 


3,750 
4,125 
4,500 

4,875 
5,250 


4,755 
5,250 
5,705 
6,180 
6,655 


5,850 
6,435 
7,020 
7,605 
8,190 


7,100 

7,810 
8,520 
9,230 
9,940 


8,472 

9,319 

10,166 

11,013 

11,860 


2,203 
2,356 
2,497 
2,644 
2,791 


3,160 
3,370 
3,580 
3,790 
4,000 


4,320 
4,608 
4,896 
5,184 
5,472 


5,625 
6,000 
6,375 
6,750 
7,125 


7,130 

7,605 
8,080 
8,535 
9,010 


8,775 

9,360 

9,945 

10,530 

11,115 


10,650 
11,360 
12,070 
12,780 
13,490 


12,707 
13,554 
14,401 

15,245 
16,098 


2,938 


4,210 


5,760 


7,500 


9,490 


11,700 


14,200 


16,942 







Diameter 


in Feet. 






13 


14 


15 


16 


18 


20 


22 


4,960 
5,952 
6,944 
7,936 
8,928 


5,765 
6,918 
8,071 
9,224 
10,377 


6,698 

8,038 

9,378 

10,718 

12,058 


7,520 

9,024 

10,528 

12,032 

13,536 


9,516 
11,419 
13,322 
15,225 
17,128 


11,750 
14,100 
16,450 
18,800 
21,150 


14,215 
17,059 
19,902 

22,745 
25,588 


9,920 
10,913 
11,904 
12,896 
13,888 


11,530 
12,683 
13,836 
14,989 
16,142 


13,398 
14,738 
16,078 
17,418 
18,758 


It 

ie 
i? 
is 

21 


,040 

,544 
,048 
,552 
,056 


19,031 
20,934 

22,837 
24,740 
26,643 


23,500 
25,850 
28,200 
30,550 
32,900 


28,431 
31,274 
34,117 
36,960 
39,803 


14,880 
15,872 
16,864 
17,856 
18,848 


17,295 

18,448 
19,601 
20,754 
21,907 


20,098 
21,438 
22,778 
24,118 
25,458 


22,260 
26,064 
25,568 
27,072 

28,576 


28,546 
30,449 
32,352 
34,255 
36,158 


35,250 
37,600 
39,950 
42,300 
44,650 


42,646 

45,489 
48,332 
51,175 
54,018 


19,840 


23,060 


26,798 


30 


,080 


38,062 


47,000 


56,861 



To find the number of gallons in a tank of unequal diameter 
multiply the inside bottom diameter in inches by the inside top 
diameter in inches, then this product by 34: point off four figures 
and the result will be the average number of gallons to one inch 
in depth of the tank. 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



173 



Size of Conductor Pipes. 

The size of conductor pipe necessary to drain gutters is as 
follows: — 

3J? in. Trough, up to 12 ft. long; use 2 in. Conductor Pipe 



3* 

4 
5 

6 

7 
8 



12 to 25 
25 to 35 
35 to 45 
45 to 55 
55 to 65 
65 to 75 



use 2 
" 3 
" 3 
« 4 

" 5 

" 6 
" 7 



Capacity of Boxes. 

A box 24 X 24 X 14.7 inches will hold a barrel of 31£ gallons. 

A box 15 X 14 X 11 inches will hold 10 gallons. 

A box 8i X 7 X 4 inches will hold a gallon. 

A box 4 X 4 X 3.6 inches will hold a quart. 

A box 24 X 28 X 16 inches will hold 5 bushels. 

A box 16 X 12 X 11.2 inches will hold a bushel. 

A box 12 X 11.2 X 8 inches will hold a half-bushel. 

A box 7 X 6.4 X 12 inches will hold a peck. 

A box 8.4 X 8 X 4 inches will hold a half-peck, or 4 dry quarts. 

A box 6 X 5| X 4 inches will hold a half-gallon. 

A box 4 X 4 X 2 T V 



Capacity of Expansion Tanks. 




Size, Inches. 


Capacity, 


Size, Inches. 


Capacity, 




Gallons. 




Gallons. 


12X20 


10 


30X120 


372 


12X24 


12 


36X 48 


212 


12X30 


15 


36X 60 


265 


12X36 


18 


36X 72 


318 


14X30 


20 


36X 84 


371 


14X36 


24 


36X 96 


424 


16X30 


26 


36X108 


477 


16X36 


32 


36X120 


530 


24X48 


94 


36X144 


636 


24X60 


117 


42X 60 


360 


24X72 


141 


42X 72 


432 


30X48 


147 


42 X 84 


504 


30X60 


184 


42X 96 


572 


30X72 


221 


42X108 


644 


30X84 


258 


42X120 


716 


30X96 


294 


42X144 


860 


30X108 


335 







174 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



DIMENSIONS FOR LIQUID MEASURES. 



Size. 


Diameter of 

Top, 

Inches. 


Diameter of 
Bottom, 
Inches. 


Height, 
Inches. 


5-gallon 


8 

7 

6 

3| 

2* 

2 


13£ 

HI 

8* 

51 

4 


12| 

10| 

81 

. 4* 

4 


3-gallon 


2-gallon 


1-gallon 


1-quart 


1-pint 







A gill 


contains 


7 


22 cubic inches. 


A pint 
A quart 
A gallon 


a 

u 


28 

57 

231 


87 " 
75 " 

it 


11 
It 



DIMENSIONS OF SQUARE OR KITCHEN SINKS. 



Length. 


Width. 


Depth. 


Length. 


Width. 


Depth. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


16 


12 


6 


30 


12 


6 


16 


16 


6 


30 


16 


6 


18 


12 


6 


30 


18 


6 


18 


16 


6 


30 


20 


6 


18 


18 


6 


32 


18 


6 


20 


12 


6 


32 


21 


6 


20 


14 


6 


34 


20 


6 


20 


16 


6 


36 


16 


6 


20 


20 


6 


36 


18 


6 


22 


14 


6 


36 


20 


6 


23 


15 


6 


36 


21 


6 


24 


14 


6 


36 


22 


6 


24 


15 


6 


38 


19 


6 


24 


16 


6 


38 


20 


6 


24 


17 


6 


40 


20 


6 


24 


18 


6 


41 


22 


6 


24 


20 


6 


42 


18 


6 


25J 


15* 


6 


42 


20 


6 


25 


17 


6 


42 


22 


6 


27 


15 


6 


48 


20 


6 


28 


16 


6 


48 


22 


6 


28 


17 


6 


48 


23 


6 


28 


20 


6 


48 


24 


6 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 175 

DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OR HOTEL SINKS. 



Length. 


Width. 


Depth. 


Length. 


Width. 


Depth. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


50 


24 


6* 


72 


24 


6 


60 


20 


6 


76 


22 


7 


60 


24 


6 


84 


24 


6 


62 


22 


8 


96 


24 


6 


62 


26 


8 


108 


24 


6 


72 


20 


6 


120 


24 


6 



SIZE AND CAPACITY OF ROUND END STOCK WATERING 
AND RESERVOIR TANKS. 



Length. 


Width. 


Height. 


Capacity. 


Weight. 


4 ft. 


2 ft. 


2 ft. 


3f bbls. 


70 lbs. 


5 ft. 


2 ft. 


2 ft. 


4f bbls. 


86 lbs. 


6 ft. 


2 ft. 


2 ft. 


5| bbls. 


103 lbs. 


7 ft. 


2 ft. 


2 ft. 


61 bbls. 


119 lbs. 


8 ft. 


2 ft. 


2 ft. 


1\ bbls. 


137 lbs. 


8 ft. 


2 ft. 


2i ft. 


91 bbls. 


150 lbs. 


8 ft. 


2i ft. 


2 ft. 


91 bbls. 


144 lbs. 


8 ft. 


21 ft. 


2i ft. 


12 bbls. 


150 lbs. 


8 ft. 


3 ft. 


2 ft. 


Ill bbls. 


152 lbs. 


8 ft. 


3 ft. 


2i ft. 


14 bbls. 


166 lbs. 


8 ft. 


4 ft. 


2 ft. 


15 bbls. 


173 lbs. 


8 ft. 


4 ft. 


2i ft. 


17 bbls. 


190 lbs. 


8 ft. 


4 ft. 


3 ft. 


23 bbls. 


215 lbs. 


8 ft. 


6 ft. 


2 ft. 


23i bbls. 


240 lbs. 


10 ft. 


2 ft. 


2 ft. 


91 bbls. 


160 lbs. 


10 ft. 


3 ft. 


2 ft. 


14 bbls. 


185 lbs. 


10 ft. 


3 ft. 


21ft. 


18 bbls. 


210 lbs. 


10 ft. 


3 ft. 


3 ft. 


21 bbls. 


235 lbs. 


10 ft. 


4 ft. 


2 ft. 


19 bbls. 


210 lbs. 


10 ft. 


4 ft. 


21ft. 


24 bbls. 


247 lbs. 


10 ft. 


4 ft. 


3 ft. 


29 bbls. 


277 lbs. 


10 ft. 


6 ft. 


2 ft. 


281 bbls. 


285 lbs. 


10 ft. 


4 ft. 


5 ft. 


47 bbls. 


440 lbs. 


10 ft. 


6 ft. 


4 ft. 


56 bbls. 


434 lbs. 


16 ft. 


4 ft. 


2 ft. 


30 bbls. 


372 lbs. 


16 ft. 


5 ft. 


2 ft. 


38 bbls. 


412 lbs. 



176 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

SIZE AND CAPACITY OF ROUND END OBLONG TANKS. 



Length. 


Width. 


Height. 


Capacity. 


Weight. 


4 ft. 


18 in. 


12 in. 


40 gals. 


50 lbs. 


4 ft. 


24 in. 


12 in. 


50 gals. 


55 lbs. 


6 ft. 


24 in. 


12 in. 


80 gals. 


80 lbs. 


6 ft. 


24 in. 


18 in. 


120 gals. 


90 lbs. 


8 ft. 


18 in. 


12 in. 


80 gals. 


90 lbs. 


8 ft. 


24 in. 


12 in. 


110 gals. 


100 lbs. 


8 ft. 


24 in. 


18 in. 


165 gals. 


110 lbs. 


10 ft. 


24 in. 


12 in. 


140 gals. 


120 lbs. 


10 ft. 


24 in. 


18 in. 


210 gals. 


140 lbs. 



SIZE AND CAPACITY OF RECTANGULAR TANKS IN 
BARRELS. (1 bbl.= 31-5 gallons.) 



Width. 


Height. 


Length. 


Capacity. 


2 feet 


2 feet 


4 feet 


3 . 8 barrels 


2 feet 


2 feet 


6 feet 


5.7 barrels 


2 feet 


2 feet 


8 feet 


7 . 6 barrels 


2i feet 


2 feet 


8 feet 


9^ barrels 


3 feet 


2 feet 


8 feet 


11.4 barrels 


4 feet 


2 feet 


8 feet 


15.2 barrels 


3 feet 


2 feet 


10 feet 


14.2 barrels 


4 feet 


2 feet 


10 feet 


19 barrels 


4 feet 


2 feet 


16 feet 


30 . 4 barrels 



Bursting Strength of Brass and Copper Tubes. 

To estimate the safe limit of bursting pressure for seamless 
brass and copper tubing in pounds per square inch : 

First — Ascertain the tensile strength of the metal in the 
tube, which will vary according to the quality and temper. 

Second. — Multiply the tensile strength by the thickness of 
the metal in inches, or decimal parts of an inch. 

Third. — Divide by the radius (one-half of the diameter) 
expressed in inches, and the result shows the pressure in pounds 
per square inch. 

If a safety factor of six (6) is allowed, divide the above result 
by six (6). Example: A tube 4 inches outside diameter, No- 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



17T 



8 B. &. S. Gauge, made of Brass, which has a tensile strength 
of 40,000 pounds per square inch, shows 428 pounds pressure per 
square inch as follows: 

40,000 lbs. per square inch. 
.1284 or No. 8 B. &. S. thick. 
\ diam. of 4 in. Tube = 2 in) 5 136 .000 
Factor of safety, 6) 2568.0000 

428 lbs. pressure per sq. in. 
Brass in tubes has a maximum tensile strength of 40.000 
pounds per square inch. 

Copper in tubes has a maximum tensile strength of 30.000 
pounds per square inch. 



STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON BOLTS.* 
(Computed by A. F. Nagle.) 







|| 




Stress upon 


Bolt upon Basis of 




+T 


CO 

73 


"8 £ 




Working Strength of 




9 

1 




1 


1 § 


1 & 


a 




^ 


hi 


a 


o X! 
o 

CD 


H 


°1 


3 CQ „5 
el P 


ft 


S3 


CD 

3 M 


CD 
** 

a 3 


it 

© — 


IS 


g 


a 


S H 


^£ 


o d* 


o o 1 


o a 1 


o 6< 


© & 


(3 


o3 


* 'q 


a) H 


O CO 


O 0Q 


© co 


o co 


© (y - 


O 


5 


3 
fc 


s 


3 


o 

CO 


O 


o 


o 


© 


A 








lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


i 


13 


.38 


.12 


350 


460 


580 


810 


1160 


5800 


& 


12 


.44 


.15 


450 


600 


750 


1050 


1500 


7500 


1 


11 


.49 


.19 


560 


750 


930 


1310 


1870 


9000 


! 


10 


.60 


.28 


750 


1130 


1410 


1980 


2830 


14000 


1 


9 


.71 


.39 


1180 


1570 


1970 


2760 


3940 


19000 


l 


8 


.81 


.52 


1550 


2070 


2600 


3630 


5180 


25000 


l* 


7 


.91 


.65 


1950 


2600 


3250 


4560 


6510 


30000 


H 


7 


1.04 


.84 


2520 


3360 


4200 


5900 


8410 


39000 


if 


6 


1.12 


1.00 


3000 


4000 


5000 


7000 


10000 


46000 


li 


6 


1.25 


1.23 


3680 


4910 


6140 


8600 


12280 


56000 


if 


5* 


1.35 


1.44 


4300 


5740 


7180 


10000 


14360 


65000 


if 


5 


1.45 


1.65 


4950 


6600 


8250 


11560 


16510 


74000 


if 


5 


1.57 


1.95 


5840 


7800 


9800 


13640 


19500 


85000 


2 


4* 


1.66 


2.18 


6540 


8720 


10900 


15260 


21800 


95000 


2i 


*i 


1.92 


2.88 


8650 


11530 


14400 


20180 


28800 


125000 


2* 


4 


2.12 


3.55 


10640 


14200 


17730 


24830 


35500 


150000 


2! 


4 


2.37 


4.43 


13290 


17720 


22150 


31000 


44300 


186000 


3 


3i 


2.57 


5.20 


15580 


20770 


26000 


36360 


52000 


213000 


H 


3i 


3.04 


7.25 


21760 


29000 


36260 


50760 


72500 


290000 


4 


3 


3.50 


9.62 


28860 


38500 


48100 


67350 


96200 


385000 



* National Tube Co. Pocket Book. 



178 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



When the greatest load that has to be sustained by a bolt is 
known, and the working strength per square inch of the material 
constituting it is determined, look in the proper column for the 
given load. Should the load sought be not found, then take the 
load next larger as found in the column, and opposite to it in the 
first column read the required size of bolt. 



NAME OF ALLOYS OR COMPOSITION OF METALS. 



Name of Metal. 

Aluminium bronze 

Bell metal 

Brass 

Britannia metal 

Bronze 

Dutch metal 

German Silver 

Gold currency 

Gun metal 

Mosaic gold 

Ormolu 

Pewter 

Silver currency 

Shot 

Solder 

Stereotype metal 

Type metal 



Alloys. 

Copper and Aluminium 
Copper and Tin 
Copper and Zinc 
Tin and Antimony 
Copper and Tin 
Copper and Zinc 
Copper, Nickel and Zinc 
Gold and Copper 
Copper and Tin 
Gold, Silver and Copper 
Copper and Zinc 
Tin and Lead 
Silver and Copper 
Lead and Arsenic 
Lead and Tin 

Lead, Antimony and Bismuth 
Lead and Antimony (also copper 
at times) 



Metal combine with Chlorine and produce Chlorides. 
Metal combine with Sulphur and produce Sulphides. 
Metal combine with Oxygen and produce Oxides. 



PRESSURE OF ATMOSPHERE. 

1 Atmosphere, = pressure per sq. inch of the atmosphere at 
sea level, which is 14.7 pounds per sq. inch; corresponding to a 
column of water 34 feet high, or a column of mercury about 30 
inches high. 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



179 



WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF RIVETED HYDRAULIC PIPE. 

Showing size and weight, with safe head for various sizes of double 
riveted Sheet Steel pipe. 

{Pelton Water Wheel Co.) 



a 

O) 

ft 
£ 

o 

frl to 

Id .s 

CO 1— 1 

5 


"3 & 

SI 

o -c 

■ % U 

CD -£ 

d 02 
^1 . 

2 cc 
£p 


w 

CO 
CD 

d 

o 
£ 

^ to 

03 d 
> M 

'3 5 
cr 

H 


T3 
cd r- 

ft 1 

il 


"c3 co 
CD T3 

*J 

ft.S 
£ o 


i 
s 

s i 

gj 

5 

12 


3 S 

O 73 
w S 

8 J 

^ . 

■d '• 

H D 


TO 

CD 

d 
M 
o 

H . 

^ to 

"££ 

£ o 
c3 d 
> *-t 

'3 S 


ft C3 

P-t 03 

"S3 

d 0Q 


n4 

a) a 

.a 3 
^£ 

ft-S 


3 


18 


.05 


810 


2.25 


16 


.062 


252 


10.00 


4 


18 


.05 


607 


3.00 


12 


14 


.078 


316 


12.25 


4 


16 


.062 


760 


3.75 


12 


12 


.109 


442 


17.00 












12 


11 


.125 


506 


19.50 


5 


18 


.05 


485 


3.75 


12 


10 


.14 


567 


21.75 


5 


16 


.062 


605 


4.50 












5 


14 


.078 


757 


5.75 


13 


16 


.062 


233 


10.50 












13 


14 


.078 


291 


13.00 


6 


18 


.05 


405 


4.25 


13 


12 


.109 


407 


18.00 


6 


16 


.062 


505 


5.25 


13 


11 


.125 


467 


20.50 


6 


14 


.078 


630 


6.50 


13 


10 


.14 


522 


23.00 


7 


18 


.05 


346 


4.75 


14 


16 


.062 


216 


11.25 


7 


16 


.062 


433 


6.00 


14 


14 


.078 


271 


14.00 


7 


14 


.078 


540 


7.50 


14 


12 


.109 


378 


19.50 












14 


11 


.125 


433 


22.25 


8 


16 


.062 


378 


7.00 


14 


10 


.14 


485 


25.00 


8 


14 


.078 


472 


8.75 












8 


12 


.109 


660 


12.00 


15 


16 


.062 


202 


11.75 












15 


14 


.078 


252 


14.75 


9 


16 


.062 


336 


7.50 


15 


12 


.109 


352 


20.50 


9 


14 


.078 


420 


9.25 


15 


11 


.125 


405 


23.25 


9 


12 


.109 


587 


12.75 


15 


10 


.14 


453 


26.00 


10 


16 


.062 


307 


8.25 


16 


14 


.078 


237 


16.00 


10 


14 


.078 


378 


10.25 


16 


12 


.109 


332 


22.25 


10 


12 


.109 


530 


14.25 


16 


11 


.125 


379 


24.50 


10 


11 


.125 


607 


16.25 


16 


10 


.14 


425 


28.50 


10 


10 


.14 


680 


18.25 






















18 


14 


.078 


210 


18.50 


11 


16 


.062 


275 


9.00 


18 


12 


.109 


295 


25.25 


11 


14 


.078 


344 


11.00 


18 


11 


.125 


337 


29.00 


11 


12 


.109 


480 


15.25 


18 


10 


.14 


378 


32.50 


11 


11 


.125 


553 


17.50 


18 


8 


.171 


460 


40.00 


11 


10 


.14 


617 


19.50 













180 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF RIVETED HYDRAULIC 
PIPE.— Continued. 

Showing size and weight with safe head for various sizes of double 
riveted Sheet Steel pipe. 



a 


r3 <» 

2 be 


CO 

CO 


•d 






■So 


o 


2 « 




H 


S "g 


a 


Pn 02 


"5) 3 




V. & 


H . 


a> >j 


^ O 


o 


° "3 


+3 CO 


%> ~S 


5n f^ 


S3 S 

11 


S if 
I 3 ? 


> i— i 


5S 

.2 ^ 


ft fl 

he o 


<3 hH 

s 




'3 ci 






20 


14 


.078 


189 


19.75 


20 


12 


.109 


265 


27.50 


20 


11 


.125 


304 


31.50 


20 


10 


.14 


340 


35.00 


20 


8 


.171 


415 


45.50 


22 


14 


.078 


172 


22.00 


22 


12 


.109 


240 


30.50 


22 


11 


.125 


276 


34.50 


22 


10 


.14 


309 


39.00 


22 


8 


.171 


376 


50.00 


24 


12 


.109 


220 


32.00 


24 


11 


.125 


253 


37.50 


24 


10 


.14 


283 


42.00 


24 


8 


.171 


346 


50.00 


24 


6 


.20 


405 


59.00 


26 


12 


.109 


203 


35.50 


26 


11 


.125 


233 


39.50 


26 


10 


.14 


261 


44.25 


26 


8 


.171 


319 


54.00 


26 


6 


.20 


373 


64.00 





"3 a5 


co 

CO 






c 


'd ko 


0> 


TJ 




<x> 


a> § 


(3 


9. a 

.2* c3 


? TS 


Pi 


jo 




to m 




o 


O e3 
8 § 


"§1 




*H to 


CO |—( 

s 




"3 £ 
to 


m 


bfl o 

"53 to 


28 


12 


.109 


188 


38.00 


28 


11 


.125 


216 


42.25 


28 


10 


.14 


242 


47.50 


28 


8 


.171 


295 


58.00 


28 


6 


.20 


346 


69.00 


30 


11 


.125 


202 


45.00 


30 


10 


.14 


226 


50.50 


30 


8 


.171 


276 


61.75 


30 


6 


.20 


323 


73.00 


30 


i 

4 


.25 


404 


90.00 


36 


10 


.14 


189 


60.50 


36 


3 
16 


.187 


252 


81.00 


36 


1 

4 


.25 


337 


109.00 


36 


5 
16 


.312 


420 


135.00 


40 


3 

T6 


.187 


226 


90.00 


40 


1 
4 


.25 


303 


120.00 


40 


5 
16 


.312 


378 


150.00 


40 


i 


.375 


455 


180.00 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



181 



SIZES OF PLUMBERS' TOOL BAGS. 

Plumbers' tool bags are now manufactured and can be pur- 
chased at the leading hardware stores; they are made of heavy 
canvas in the following sizes: 

No. 1 16"x21". 

No. 2 22"xl9". 
No. 3 17"x20". 



WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF SPIRAL RIVETED PIPE. 

STANDARD PLAIN AND PRESSURE PIPE. 

(Abendroth and Root Manufacturing Co.) 









Approximate 




Diameter 
in Inches. 


Thickness, 
B. W. G. 


Approximate 

Weight in Lbs. 

per Foot. 


Bursting 
Pressure in 

Lbs. per 
Square Inch. 


Weight Each 
Flange At- 
tached. 


3 


No. 20 


2 


900 


3 


3} 


" 


2i 


820 


3* 


4 


" 


2* 


700 


3f 


5 


" 


3* 


550 


5 


6 


No. 18 


4i 


700 


6* 


7 


" 


5 


600 


8 


8 


i i 


6 


500 


H 


9 


n 


6* 


450 


121 


10 


No. 16 


9* 


500 


15 


11 


" 


101 


450 


16 


12 


< < 


12* 


400 


17* 


13 


a 


13 


380 


18| 


14 


No. 14 


17* 


470 


21 


15 


" 


19* 


450 


23 


16 


1 1 


20* 


400 


34 


18 


" 


25 


370 


40 


20 


< i 


28* 


325 


44 


22 


No. 12 


33 


365 


66 


24 


" 


40 


335 


71 


26 


i i 


66 


300 


145 


28 


No. 10 






168 


30 


< i 






178 











182 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF SPIRAL RIVETED 
PIPE. — Continued. 

EXTRA HEAVY PLAIN AND PRESSURE PIPE. 



Diameter in 
Inches. 


Thickness, 
B. W. G. 


Approximate 

Weight in Lbs. 

per Foot. 


Approximate 

Bursting Pressure 
in Lbs. per 
Square Inch. 


3 


No. 18 


a* 


1,300 


3* 


it 


3 


1,275 


4 


No. 16 


H 


1,250 


5 


it 


5i 


1,000 


6 


< i 


H 


800 


7 


" 


6* 


700 


8 


it 


7f 


600 


9 


11 


8! 


550 


10 


No. 14 


llf 


650 


11 


i < 


13 


600 


12 


" 


15 


550 


13 


it 


161 


500 


14 


No. 12 


22^ 


570 


15 


" 


24* 


530 


16 


(< 


25£ 


500 


18 


< i 


31 


440 


20 


ti 


35^ 


400 


22 


No. 10 


44 


450 


24 


" 


52 


400 


26 


<( 


62 


350 



THICKNESS AND WEIGHT OF RUBBER MATTING. 

Rubber matting such as is used for floors of kitchens, bath 
rooms, etc., is made \ inch thick and weighs about 8 lbs. per 
square yard; this matting is made 36 inches wide and any 
length. 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 183 



RIVETED STEEL PIPE LINES IN UNITED STATES. 

A partial list of riveted steel pipe lines in the United States 
was included in a recent special report made by Major Cassius E. 
Gillette, while chief of the Philadelphia Bureau of Filtration, 
as follows: 



Location. 



Size, 
Inches. 



Length, Ap- 
proximate, 

Feet. 



First Pittsburg, Pa., Rising Main 

East Jersey Water Co 

East Jersey Water Co., Belleville. 

Syracuse, N. Y 

(2) Rochester, N. Y 

Second Pittsburg, Rising Main . . 
Portland, Ore 



Allegheny City, Pa 

East Jersey Water Co., Kearney, 

N.J. 
East Jersey Water Co., Newark, 

N.J. 

East Jersey Water Co 

New Bedford, Mass 

Duluth, Minn 

Ogden, Utah 

Minneapolis, Minn 

Passaic Water Co., N.J 

Albany, N. Y 

Seattle, Wash 

East Jersey Water Co 

Utica Power Co., Utica, N. Y. . . . 
Third Rising Main, Pittsburg, Pa. 

Atlantic City, N.J 

Pittsburg, Pa., Supply Main 



Jersey City, N. J. 

Boston, Mass 

Newark, N. J. . . . 

Troy, N. Y 

Schenectady, N. 1 
Lynchburg, Va. . . 
Wilmington, Del. 
Wilmington, Del. 
Passaic Water Co. 
Passaic Water Co. 
Pittsburg, Pa. . . . 
Pittsburg, Pa. . . . 
Pittsburg, Pa. . . . 



50 
48 
36 
54 
38 
50 
33 and 
42 
60 
42 

48 

42 

48 
42 
72 
50 
42 
48 
42 
51 
84 
48 
30 
42 and 
51 
72 



Pittsburg, Pa. 



60 
33 
36 
30 
43 
48 
42 
48 
50 
36 
24 and 
96 
30 



2,900 

116,000 

26,000 

6,500 
142,000 

1,600 
126,000 

50,000 
8,800 

26,400 

89,700 
42,500 
15,000 

5,000 
34,400 
21,000 

8,000 
32,400 
47,500 

1,000 

4,400 
27,000 
26,000 

93,000 



39,300 
35,300 
23,000 
12,000 

8,000 
12,000 

8,000 

2,000 
26,500 

4,100 
11,800 

2,600 



184 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



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TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



185 






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186 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Formula for Thickness of Cast-iron Water-Pipe. 



. .00008M + O.ld + .36 Shedd; 

= .OOOOQhd + .0133d + .296 Warren Foundry: 

■■ .000058ftd + .0152 + .312 Francis; 

: .000048/id + .013d + .32 Dupuit; 

■■ .00004/id + .1 Vd + .15 Box; 

= .000135M + .4 - .OOlld Whitman; 

= . 00006 (h + 230d) + .333 -.0033d Fanning; 

= .00015/id + .25 - .0052d Meggs; 

n which t = thickness in inches, h = head in feet, d = diameter. 

SIZE AND WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPE. 



Calibre. 



Ultimate 
Strength. 



Working 
Strength. 



£ inch 
1 
i 
I 

i 
i 



tubing 

extra-light tubin 

light tubing 

medium tubing, 
strong tubing. . . 
extra strong. . . . 

aqueduct 

light 

medium 

strong 

extra strong. . . . 

aqueduct 

extra light 

light 

medium , 

strong 

extra strong 

aqueduct 

extra light 

light 

medium , 

strong 

extra strong 

aqueduct 

extra light 

light 

medium 

strong , 

extra strong . . . 

aqueduct 

extra light 

light 

medium 

strong. 

extra strong 

aqueduct 

extra light 

light , 

medium , 

strong. , 

extra strong 
aqueduct 



1187 

1342 

1381 

1627 

1968 

782 

980 

1285 

1393 

1655 

1787 

708 

795 

987 

1152 

1380 

1548 

505 

782 

865 

1072 

1225 

1462 

518 

562 

745 

857 

910 

1230 

350 

420 

546 

685 

823 

962 

315 



296 
335 
347 
406 
492 
195 
245 
321 
343 
413 
446 
177 
198 
246 
288 
345 
387 
126 
195 
216 
268 
306 
365 
129 
140 
186 
214 
227 
307 

87 
105 
136 
171 
205 
240 

78 



3* 

4 

6 

8 
10 

2 

8 
12 



8 





1 



1 
1 

2 

10 
12 



1 12 

2 8 



12 
4 

12 

8 


8 

4 

8 
8 

8 
4 


12 

8 


12 

12 





TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 187 

SIZE AND WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPE— (Continued). 



Calibre. 



inch extra light. . 

' ' light 

" medium. . . . 

' ' strong 

" extra strong 

" extra light. . 

" light 

" medium. . . . 

* ' strong 

' ' extra strong 

" waste 

' ' extra light. . 

" light 

' ' medium. . . . 

* ' strong 

' ' extra strong 

' ' i^ thick 

" x " 

4 * ft thick. .' ! .' . 

" f " .... 

' ' waste 

" A thick 

" i •« .... 

" *" :: :::: 

•« i " .... 

:: f " :::: 

' ' waste 

" $ thick. . . . 

" i " .... 

" I ■■ :::: 

' ' waste 



Ultimate 
Strength. 

430 
506 
628 
700 

742 



318 



200 
260 
360 
405 
511 
611 



Working 
Strength. 



Weight per 

Foot. 

Lbs. Oz. 



107 
126 
157 
175 
185 



79 

93 

116 

50 

65 

90 

101 

127 

152 



8 



8 
12 
8 
8 
8 






























PURE BLOCK-TIN PIPE. 



Calibre. 



\ inch strong 

i " extra strong. ...... 

1 ' ' double extra strong. 

& ' ' double extra strong. 

f ' ' extra strong 

| ' ' double extra strong. 

| ' ' strong 

% ' * extra strong 



Wei'ht 

per 
Foot. 

Oz. 



2+ 
5 
6 
6* 



6i 

10 



Calibre. 



\ inch double extra strong 



extra strong 

double extra strong. 

extra strong 

double extra strong 

extra strong 

double extra strong 



Weight 

per 

Foot. 

Lbs. Oz. 



188 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Relative Weights of Metals. 

Cubic inches multiplied by: Cylindrical inches multiplied by: 

.263 = pounds of cast iron .2065 = pounds of cast iron 

.281 = 

.283 = 

.3225 - 

.3037 = 

.26 = 

.4103 = 

.2636 = 

.4908 = 



wrought iron 
steel 


.2168 = 
.2223 = 


" wrought iron 
" steel 


copper 

brass 

zinc 

lead 

tin 


.2533 = 

.2385 = 
.2042 = 
.3223 = 
.207 = 


" copper 
" brass 
" zinc 
" lead 
" tin 


mercury 


.3854 = 


" mercury 



Space Occupied by Fuel. 

Coals of the same size coming from different mines vary in 
density, but the space given below is an average for best 
fuels : 

Stove Anthracite 33 cubic feet per 2,000 lbs. 

Egg " 32.5 " " " 2,000 lbs. 

Soft Coal 40 " " " 2,000 lbs. 

Coke 68 " " " 2,000 lbs. 



1 Gallon. 



Weight of Liquids per Gallon. 



Pounds. 



Ale 8.33 

Acid, Nitric :. . . 10.58 

Acid, Sulphuric 15 . 42 

Acid, Muriatic . . i 10. 

Alcohol, Commerce 6 . 74 

Alcohol, Proof Spirit 7.94 

Naphtha 7.08 

Oil, Linseed 7 . 75 

Oil of Turpentine 7.25 

Oil, Whale 7.25 

Petroleum 7 . 35 

Vinegar 8.43 

Salt Water 8.59 

Tar 8.43 

Distilled Water 8.34 



Weight of Round Zinc Rods. 

Per Lineal Foot. 
| inch diameter 33 pounds. 



I 



58 

.90 

1.30 

1.78 

2.32 



TABLES OF SIZES, STRENGTHS, ETC. 



189 



DRAWN LEAD TRAPS AND BENDS. 

Dimension Scale for Regular Traps and Bends. 

Showing length of Inlet and Outlet up to Running Y, length over 
of Bag Trap and from center to ends of Long and Short Bends. 



Size, 
Inter. 
Diani. 



H inch . . 
14 inch . . 

2 inch.. 

3 inch . . 

4 inch . . 
44 inch . . 




Inlet. Outlet. Inlet. Outlet. Inlet. Outlet. Inlet. Outlet 



4i inches 6i 
4^ inches 7 
44 inches 8 
4 inches 104 
3i inches 11| 
3| inches 124 



4|- inches 5i 
44 inches 6 
44 inches 74 
4 inches 10 
3i inches 11 
34 inches 134 



44 inches 
44 inches 
44 inches 
4 inches 
3i inches 10 
34 inches 10i 



94 



44 inches 54 
5i inches 6J 
5i inches 74 
74 inches 74 
8 inches 8 
94 inches 64 



Size, 
Inter. 
Diam. 



Hindi 
14 inch 

2 inch 

3 inch 

4 inch 
44 inch 





Inlet. Outlet. 



51- 



44 inches 
5i inches 
5i inches 74 
74 inches 10 
8 inches 11 
94 inches 134 



Length Over All 



114 inches 
13 inches 
15 inches 
184 inches 
224 inches 
234 inches 



Center to Ends. 



6 inches 34 

7 inches 4 
7| inches 3f 
8^ inches 4i 

10 inches 54 

11 inches 6i 



Long Bend 



Center to Ends. 



6 inches 

7 inches 
7f inches 
8^ inches 

10 inches 

11 inches 



Dimension Scale for Extra Long Traps. 

Showing length over all of S and Bag Traps and Inlet and Outlet of | S, 4 S, 
Running and Running Y. 



Size, Internal Diam. 
Measurements taken as 


Full S. 


as. 


4 S OR P. 


shown by Arrows on 
Cuts of Regular Traps. 


Length Over All. 


Inlet. Outlet. 


Inlet. Outlet. 




24 inches 
24 inches 
24 inches 


4i inches 16i 
44 inches 15f 
4i inches 154 


4i inches 14i 




2 inch 


44 inches 14 




Size, Internal Diam. 
Measurements taken as 


Running. 


Running Y. 


Bag. 


shown by Arrows on 
Cuts of Regular Traps. 


Inlet. Outlet. 


Inlet. Outlet. 


Length Over All . 




44 inches 174 
Hi inches 16| 
5i inches 16f 


44 inches 16^ 
5-j inches 15f 
5i inches 154 








2 inch 


24 inches 



190 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

CAPACITY AND SIZE OF GALVANIZED BOILERS. 









Total 


Capacity. 


Size. 


Weight of 
Boiler. 


Weight 
Filled with 








Water. 


18 gallons 


3 feet by 12 inches 


47 


196 


21 " 


3^ " 


'12 " 


49 


224 


24 " 


4 " 


' 12 " 


57 


257 


24 " 


3 " 


' 14 " 


52 


255 


27 " 


41 " 


'12 " 


66 


291 


28 '* 


31 " 


' 14 " 


66 


299 


30 " 


5 " 


' 12 " 


72 


322 


32 " 


4 " 


' 14 " 


72 


339 


35 '« 


5 " 


' 13 " 


76 


367 


36 " 


6 " 


'12 " 


85 


384 


36 " 


41 " 


' 14 " 


78 


377 


40 " 


5 " 


' 14 " 


85 


418 


42 " 


4 " 


' 16 " 


95 


444 


47 " 


41 " 


' 16 " 


102 


493 


48 " 


6 " 


' 14 " 


102 


503 


52 * ' 


5 " 


' 16 " 


119 


551 


53 " 


4 " 


' 18 " 


119 


562 


63 " 


6 " 


" 16 " 


146 


670 


66 " 


5 " 


' 18 " 


150 


699 


79 " 


6 " 


'18 " 


171 


829 


82 " 


5 " 


4 20 " 


192 


875 


98 ** 


6 " 


"20 " 


210 


1026 


100 " 


5 " 


" 22 " 


220 


1053 


120 " 


6 " 


'22 " 


265 


1264 


120 " 


5 " 


"24 " 


260 


1259 


144 " 


6 " 


"24 " 


332 


1531 


168 *' 


7 " 


'24 " 


348 


1747 


192 " 


8 " " 24 " 


391 


1990 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER LINEAL FOOT OF SEAMLESS BRASS 

AND COPPER TUBING. 

Iron Pipe Sizes. 

Made to correspond with iron tubes and to fit iron tube fittings. 



Same as 


Exact 
Outside 


Exact 
Inside 


About 
Inside 


Weight per Foot. 




Diameter. 


Diameter. 


Diameter. 






Size. 








Decimals. 


Decimals. 


Fractions. 


Brass. 


Copper. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


i 


.405 


.281 


i 


.25 


.26 


i 


.540 


.375 


» 


.43 


.45 


1 


.675 


.484 


u 


.62 


.65 


.840 


.625 


h 


.90 


.95 


1 


1.04 


.822 


1.25 


1.31 


1 


1.315 


1.062 




1.70 


1.79 


\\ 


1.66 


1.368 


m 


2.50 


2.63 


1.90 


1.600 


m 


3.00 


3.15 


2 


2.375 


2.062 


2A 


4.00 


4.20 


21 


2.875 


2.500 


2^ 


5.75 


6.04 


3 


3.50 


3.062 


3^ 


8.30 


8.72 


31 


4.00 


3 . 5000 


31 


10.90 


11.45 


4 


4.50 


4.000 


4A 


12.70 


13.33 


41 


5.00 


4 . 5000 


4H 


13.90 


14.60 


5 


5.563 


5.062 


hh 


15.75 


16.54 


6 


6.625 


6.125 


6& 


18.31 


19.23 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



191 



SEAMLESS BRASS AND COPPER TUBING— {Continued). 
Extra-heavy Iron Pipe Sizes. 









Approximate Weight in 


Same as 


Exact 


Exact 


Pounds per Foot. 


Extra-heavy 


Outside 


Inside 




Iron Pipe. 


Diameter. 


Diameter. 












Brass. 


Copper. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


i 


.405 


.205 


.370 


.389 


.504 


.294 


.625 


.651 


i 


.675 


.421 


.830 


.872 


I 


.840 


.542 


1.200 


1.260 


1.050 


.736 


1.660 


1.743 


1 


1.315 


.951 


2.360 


2.478 


11 


1.660 


1.272 


3.300 


3.465 


l* 


1.900 


1.494 


4.250 


4.462 


2 


2.375 


1.933 


5.460 


5.733 


2i 


2.875 


2.315 


8.300 


8.715 


3 


3.500 


2.892 


11 . 200 


11.760 


31 


4.00 


3.358 


13.700 


14.385 


4 


4.50 


3.818 


16.500 


17.325 


5 


5.563 


4.813 


22.800 


23.940 


6 


6.625 


5.750 


32.000 


33 . 600 



SIZE, WEIGHTS, 



ETC., OF VITRIFIED SALT-GLAZED 
SEWER-PIPE. 



Calibre of 


Thickness of 


Weight per 


Feet to 15-ton 


Pipe. 


Pipe. 


Foot. 


Car Load. 


3 inches 


1 inch 


6 pounds 


5000 


4 ' 




* 


71 " 


4000 


5 * 




t " 


111 " 


2610 


6 * 






16 


1880 


8 * 




% " 


22 


1366 


10 * 




i " 


31 


970 


12 ' 




i " 


41 


734 


14 ' 




1 " 


50 


600 


16 * 




11 inches 


66 


456 


18 ' 




H " 


80 


376 


20 ' 




11 " 


90 


334 


22 ' 




If " 


100 


300 


24 ' 




1* " 


120 


250 


30 ' 




1| " 


190 


158 



DOUBLE-STRENGTH PIPE. 



Calibre of 
Pipe. 


Thickness of 
Pipe. 


Weight per 
Foot. 


Feet to 15-ton 
Car Load. 


15 inches 
18 " 
21 *' 
24 " 
30 " 


H inches 
1* " 

J* - 

21 " 


65 pounds 
100 
132 
175 
260 


462 
300 
228 
172 
116 



192 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER LINEAL FOOT OF BRASS AND 
COPPER RODS, 



Inches. 


Brass. 


Copper. 




Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


ft 


Pounds. 
.011 
.045 
.100 
.175 
.275 


Pounds. 
.014 
.055 
.125 
.225 
.350 


Pounds. 
.01155 
.047 
.106 
.189 
.296 


Pounds. 
.0147 
060 


£..... 


J; 


.13497 
241 


f. ..... 


*.....:.:: 


.377 




3 


.395 
.540 
.710 
.90 
1.10 


.510 
.690 
.905 
1.15 
1.40 


.426 
.579 
.757 
.958 
1.182 


542 


V 


737 


i. 6 


964 


9 


1 22 


I 6 '.*.'.':.:::: 


1 51 






jt 


1.35 
1.66 
1.85 
2.15 

2.48 


1.72 
2.05 
2.40 
2.75 
3.15 


1.431 
1.703 
1.998 
2.318 
2.660 


1.82 
2 17 


13 


2 54 


7 6 


2 95 


15 


3 39 


16 






2.85 
3.20 
3.57 
3.97 
4.41 


3.65 
4.08 
4.55 
5.08 
5.65 


3.03 

3.42 

3.831 

4.269 

4.723 


3.86 


1ft 


4.35 


1£ 


4.88 


1ft 


5 44 


if .....::.. 


6.01 






ift 


4.86 
5.35 
5.85 
6.37 
6.92 


6.22 
6.81 
7.45 
8.13 
8.83 


5.21 

5.723 

6.255 

6.811 

7.39 


6 63 


14 


7.24 


}| 


7.97 
8.67 




9.41 






If 


7.48 
8.05 
8.65 
9.29 
9.95 


9.55 
10.27 
11.00 
11.82 
12.68 


7.993 

8.45 

9.27 

9.76 

10.642 


10.18 


lfi 


10.73 


14 


11.80 


ift.....::.: 


12.43 


ii 


13.55 






iff 


10.58 
11.25 
12.78 
14.32 
15.96 


13.50 
14.35 
16.27 
18.24 
20.32 


11.11 
12.108 
13.668 
15 . 325 
17.075 


14.15 


2 


15.42 


2£ 


17.42 


21 


19.51 


2f 


21.74 






2£ 


17.68 
19.50 
21.40 
23.39 
25.47 


22.53 
24.83 
27.25 
29.78 
32.43 


18.916 
20.856 
22.891 
25.019 
27.243 


24.09 


2f 


26.56 


24 


29.05 


if:::::.:.:: 


31.86 


3 


34.69 






3i 


30.45 
35.31 
46.124 


3S.77 
44.96 
58.73 


31.972 
37.081 
48.433 


40.71 


3+ 


47.22 


J!:::::::::: 


61.67 









To find the weight of octagon rod, take the weight of round rod of a 
given size and multiply by 1.084. 

To find the weight of hexagon rod, take the weight of round rod of a 
given size and multiply by 1.12. 

These tables are theoretically correct, but variations must be expected in 
practice. 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



193 



APPROXIMATE WEIGHT PER LINEAL FOOT OF STANDARD 
SIZES. RECTANGULAR OR FLAT COPPER BARS. 



Size, Inch. 



AX 1 

1 v 5 
T^A 8 

¥ x f 

Axi. 

Axil 

Axil 

ix 1 

IX f 

IX ! 
ix i 
Ixi. 
|x H 
|x il 
|x if 

1X2. 



Lbs. 



.12 
.15 
.18 
.21 
.24 
.30 
.36 
.24 
.30 
.36 
.42 
.48 
.60 
.72 
.84 
.96 



Size, Inch. 



AX 1 

16^ 8 

Ax f 

_3_ v 1 
16 ^ 8 

Axi. 

16 ^ 1 4 

Axil 

16 A X 4 

AX2. 
iX 1 

lx f 

IV 3 
4/\ 4 

1 V 1 
4/N 8 

1X1. 

iXH 
1X11 



Lbs. 



.36 

.45 

.54 

.63 

.72 

.90 

1.08 

1.26 

1.44 

.48 

.60 

.72 

.84 

.97 

1.20 

1.44 



Size, Inch. 



i-Xlf 
1X2. 
1X1. 

IX H 

ixi* 
lx if 

1X2. 
1X21 
|X2i 

ixi. 
ixil 

ly 11 

ixif 

1X2. 

1X21 
1X21 



Lbs. 



1 

1 

1 

1 

2. 

2. 

2.88 

3.24 

3.60 

1.93 

2.41 

2.89 

3.37 

3.86 

4.34 

4.82 



APPROXIMATE WEIGHT PER LINEAL FOOT OF STANDARD 
SIZES. RECTANGULAR OR FLAT BRASS BARS. 



Size, Inch. 



AX 1 

Ax f 

Ax f 

Ax f 

Axi. 

Axil 

Axil 

lx 1 

ix § 

lx ! 

lx i 

1X1. 

IX 11 
1X11 

ixif 

1X2. 



Lbs. 



.114 
.142 
.171 
.199 

.228 
.285 
.342 
.228 
.285 
.342 
.399 
.456 
.570 
.684 
.798 
.912 



Size, Inch. 



Ax l 

Ax | 

16 A 4 
3 \/ 1 
16 /n 8 

Axi. 
Axil 
Axil 
Ax if 

AX2. 

ix l 
lx I 
lx f 
IX l 
1X1. 
1X11 
IX 11 



Lbs. 



.342 

.427 

.513 

.598 

.684 

.855 

1.026 

1.197 

1.368 

.450 

.570 

.684 

.798 

.921 

1.140 

1.368 



Size, Inch. 



IX If 
1X2. 
1X1. 
IX 11 
IX 11 

Ixif 

1X2. 
1X21 
1X21 
1X1. 
1X11 
IX 11 

lx if 

1X2. 
1X21 
1X21 



Lbs. 



1.596 
1.833 
1.368 
1.710 
2.052 
2.394 
2.736 
3.078 
3.420 
1.833 
2.289 
2.745 
3.201 
3.667 
4.123 
4.579 



194 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LEAD WIRE. 
Table Showing Diameter and Corresponding B. & S. Gauge Numbers. 



Diameter in Brown & 
Sharp Gauge. 


Corresponding 
Decimal 

Equivalent. 


Corresponding 

Fractional 

Equivalent. 


Approximate 

Number of 

Feet to Pound. 


No. 6 

No. 8 


.16202 

.12849 

.10189 

.09074 

.08081 

.07196 

.06408 

.05706 

.05082 

.04525 

.0403 

.03589 

.03196 

.02846 

.02535 

.02257 


h (F) 

A (S) 

A (F) 

A (S) 
A(F) 
A(S) 
A(F) 

A(S) 

ft-(S) 
A(F) 

1 


10 

15* 

25 

31 

40 

50 


No. 10 

No. 11 

No. 12 

No. 13 


No. 14 

No. 15 

No. 16 

No. 17 


62i 

77 
100 
125 


No. 18 

No. 19 


166 
200 


No. 20 


250 


No. 21 

No. 22 


332 
400 


No. 23 


510 







Note. — Sizes above No. 6 B. & S. gauge increase by 3^ of an 
inch. (F) = Full. (S) = Scant. 

WEIGHT, ETC., OF TERRA COTTA FLUE-LININGS. 



Inside 


Outside 


Form. 


Weight per 


Feet to Car 
Load of 15 


Measure. 


Measure. 




Foot. 


Tons. 


Inches. 


Inches. 




Pounds. 




5 


7 


Round 


14 


2144 


6 


8 


a 


19 


1580 


8 


10 


it 


22 


1364 


10 


12* 


tt 


30 


1000 


3iX 1\ 


HX 8i 


Square 


10 


3000 


7 X 7 


8JX 8J 


tt 


20 


1500 


7 X1H 


8|X13 


1 1 


30 


1000 


7 Xl5i 


8^X17 


tt 


33 


910 


liixili 


13 X13 


tt 


37 


810 


11*X15* 


13 X17 


1 1 


40 


750 


I5lXl5i 


17 X17 


tt 


50 


600 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



195 



ooto 



< 



i-t t-h MINN 



,— I ,— I ,— I (N CO IM i-< © rH T 






,— I T-H r-H CO i— 1 



HhcJ* ■ • to mto 

CO|cO |cO «K*t-|oO H« • HN • H «|-*i-c|N iH|i-i,H|e<»HcOC'3|aOH|WO|°0 

i-H i-H T-H (MH 



66X2 

I— I I-H H- 1 M 
- - ~ " 

a) a) a? c3 



S a 

0) o 






rt 



c3 °?^ 



c3^^ O 






a o 

C o 






w 



WO 






u o 
PhO 



196 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT OF MINERAL WOOL. 



Average Weight. 



Ordinary slag wool . 
Selected slag wool . 
Extra slag wool — 
Ordinary rock wool 
Selected rock wool. 
Extra rock wool . . . 



Pounds 


Square 


Cubic 


per Cubic 


Foot One 


Feet to 


Foot. 


Inch Thick. 


Ton. 




Pound. 




12 


1 


166 


9 


a 


223 


6 


h 


333 


12 


1 


166 


8 


§ 


250 


6 


i 


333 



Mineral wool is put up in 
pounds. 



bags containing from 40 to 60 



THICKNESS AND WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT OF 
SHEET LEAD. 



12 ounce lead is .013 inch thick. 8poundleadis -J inch th 

" A " 



1 pound 


lead is 


■^ inch thick. 


10 


H 


t 


U 11 


i 

¥3 


a a 


12 


2 






1 




14 


2* 


i 


a a 


^ 


it u 


16 


3 




" " 


ik 


a a 


20 


4 


u 


a u 


tV 


u (i 


24 


5 


( 


Ci 11 


A 


it a 


32 


6 


1 


iC u 


A 


a a 


60 


7 


1 


u u 


A 







ck. 



WEIGHT PER 12-FOOT LENGTHS OF STANDARD CAST IRON 
PIPE AND TO REDUCE ANY LENGTH TO TONS. 



Diameter Pipe. Ins. 


Weight per 12-Ft. 
Length. 


Multiply Total Length of 
Pipe by 


4 


264 


.011 


6 


396 


.0165 


8 


504 


.021 


10 


720 


.03 


12 


900 


.0375 


14 


1,200 


.05 


16 


1,500 


.0625 


18 


2,004 


.0835 


20 


2,400 


.1 


24 


3,000 


.125 


30 


4,008 


.167 


36 


5,400 


.225 


42 


7,200 


.3 


48 


8,700 


.3625 


60 


12,900 


.5375 


72 


18,720 


.78 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



197 



APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF ROUND HEAD RIVETS IN 
ONE POUND. 

Size. 



1 





5 
16 


i 


2 


3 














32 


42 


51 


57 


65 


75 


29 


37 


45 


50 


57 


67 


26 


33 


41 


45 


51 


59 


24 


30 


37 


41 


46 


54 


22 


28 


34 


37 


42 


49 


20 


26 


31 


34 


39 


45 


19 


24 


29 


32 


36 


42 


18 


22 


27 


29 


33 


39 


17 


21 


25 


28 


31 


37 


15 


18 


22 


24 


27 


33 


13 


17 


20 


22 


25 


29 


12 


15 


18 


19 


22 


27 


11 


14 


17 


18 


20 


24 


10 


13 


15 


17 


19 


22 


9 


12 


14 


15 


17 


21 


8i 


11 


13 


14 


16 


19 


8 


10i 


12 


13£ 


15 


18 


7* 


9| 


HI 


12| 


14 


17 


7i 


9i 


11 


12 


13 


16 


7 


8! 


m 


Hi 


12f 


15 


6i 


H 


10 


10f 


12 


14 



Size. 



89 
78 
70 
63 
57 
53 
49 
45 
42 
40 
35 
32 
29 
26 
24 
23 
21 
20 
18 
17 
16 



108 
94 
84 
75 
68 
63 
58 
54 
51 
44 
40 
36 
33 
30 
28 
26 
24 
23 
21 
20 
19 



154 
131 
114 
101 
91 
82 
75 
69 
64 
59 
55 
47 
42 
39 
36 
33 
31 
29 
27 
25 
24 
23 



188" 

159 

138 

122 

109 

98 

90 

83 

76 

71 

63 

56 

50 

46 

42 

39 

36 

34 

32 

30 



221 

185 

158 

139 

123 

111 

101 

93 

86 

80 

70 

62 

56 

50 

46 

43 

40 

38 

35 

33 



8 

~256~ 

215 

185 

163 

145 

131 

119 

109 

101 

94 

82 

73 

66 

60 

55 

51 

47 

44 

41 

38 



198 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT IN POUNDS OF 100 BOLTS WITH SQUARE HEADS AND 

NUTS. 

One cubic foot weighing 480 lbs. 



Length . 






Diameter of Bolt 


Inches 




























\ 


& 


f 


7 
T6 


4 


1 


f 


1 


1 


n 


4.0 


6.8 


10.6 


15.0 


23.9 


40.5 


70.0 






If 


4.4 


7.3 


11.3 


16.1 


25.1 


42.7 


73.1 






2 


4.7 


7.8 


12.0 


17.2 


26.3 


44.8 


76.2 






2i 


5.1 


8.4 


12.6 


18.2 


27.7 


47.0 


79.3 






2h 


5.4 


8.9 


13.3 


19.2 


29.0 


49.2 


82.4 


120.5 




2f 


5.8 


9.5 


14.0 


20.2 


30.4 


51.4 


85.5 


124.7 




3 


6.1 


10.0 


14.7 


21.2 


31.8 


53.5 


88.7 


128.9 


185.0 


3* 


6.8 


11.1 


16.0 


23.2 


34.7 


57.9 


95.0 


137.4 


196.0 


4 


7.5 


12.2 


17.4 


25.2 


37.5 


62.3 


101.2 


145.8 


207.0 


4i 


8.2 


13.2 


18.7 


27.2 


40.2 


66.7 


107.5 


159.2 


218.0 


5 


8.9 


14.3 


20.0 


29.1 


43.0 


71.0 


113.7 


167.7 


229.0 


5* 


9.6 


15.4 


21.4 


31.2 


45.7 


75.4 


120.0 


176.1 


240.0 


6 


10.3 


16.5 


22.8 


33.1 


48.4 


79.8 


126.2 


184.6 


251.0 


64 


11.0 


17.6 


24.1 


35.1 


51.2 


84.1 


132.5 


193.0 


262.0 


7 


11.7 


18.6 


25.9 


37.1 


54.0 


88.5 


138.7 


201.4 


273.0 


n 


12.4 


19.7 


27.7 


39.1 


56.7 


92.9 


145.0 


209.9 


284.0 


8 


13.1 


20.8 


29.5 


41.0 


59.4 


97.2 


151.2 


218.3 


295.0 


9 






33.1 
36.7 
40.4 
44.0 


45.0 
49.0 
53.0 
57.0 


64.8 
70.3 
75.8 
81.3 

86.7 


106.0 
114.7 
123.5 
132.2 
140.7 


163.7 
176.2 
188.7 
201.0 
213.4 


240.2 
257.1 
273.9 
290.0 
307.7 


317 


10 






339 


H 






360 






382 


13 






404.0 


14 










92.2 
97.7 


149.2 
157.6 


225.9 
238.3 


324.5 
341.4 


426 


15 










448.0 


16 










103.1 


166.1 


250.8 


358.3 


470.0 


17 










108.6 
114.1 
119.5 


174.6 
183.1 
191.5 


263.2 
275.6 

288.1 


375.2 
392.0 
408.9 


492 


18 










514 


19 










536.0 


20 










125.0 


200.0 


300.5 


425.8 


558 














Per in. 




















addi- 


1.4 


2.2 


3.6 


4.0 


5.5 


8.5 


12.4 


16.9 


22.0 


tional. 





















APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF NUTS AND BOLT HEADS IN 
POUNDS. 



Diam. of Bolt in Ins. 


i 


A 


3 

8 


7 
1 6 


h 


1 


f 


Weight of hexagon 1 
nut and head .... J 

Weight of square 1 
nut and head .... J 


0.017 
0.021 


0.042 
0.049 


0.057 
0.069 


0.109 
0.120 


0.128 
0.164 


0.267 
0.320 


0.43 
0.55 


Diam. of Bolt in Ins. 


i 


1 


H 


1* 


If 


2 


2i 


Weight of hexagon "1 
nut and head .... J 

Weight of square \ 
nut and head .... J 


0.73 

0.88 


1.10 
1.31 


2.14 
2.56 


3.78 
4.42 


5.6 
7.0 


8.75 
10.5 


17.0 
21.0 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 199 

WEIGHTS AND SIZES OF SHEET LEAD. 



Pounds per square foot 
Wire-gauge number. . . 


21 

19 


3 

18 


31 4 
17 16 


41 
15 


5 

14 


6 
13 


Pounds per square foot 
Wire-gauge number. . . 


7 
12 


8 
11 


9 

10 


10 
9 


11 

8 


12 

7 



(A square foot of sheet lead A of an inch thick weighs 4 pounds.) 



APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF CAST-IRON SOIL-PIPE 
AND FITTINGS. 

Standard. 





2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


8 


10 


fl 








Pipe pounc 

Crosses pou 

Double Y branch 


s per foot 31 
nds each 5 
8 
3 
3 
41 

\ .. 4 

■ 3 " ' 

21 
4 

5*- 
5 


41 
10 
11 

4 

n 

51 
3 

4* 
4 
8 
10 
9 


61 
12 
18 

6 

6 
10 

8 

4 

6 

5 
10 
19 
13 


81 
16 
26 

8 

8 
14 
10 

6 

8 

6 
15 
26 
18 


10 
24 
37 
10 
11 
16 
141 

8 
11 

7 
20 
35 
25 


17 


23 , 
45 . 


33 


Double hubs ' 

Eighth bends. ... ' 
Half Y branches . ' 


16 
24 


26 . 
32* . 




Quarter bends. . . ' 

Reducers 

Sixth bends ' 

Sleeves ' 


34 

9 

24 


41 

'32* : 




T branches ' 

Traps ' 


38 


55 . 




Y branches 


42 


70 . 












2X8 


3X8 


4X12 


5X126 


X8 


















5 


8 


15 


20 


>2 












Extra Heavy. 




2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


8 


10 


12 






Pipe pounds 

Crosses pov. 


per foot. 51 
nds each 10 
12 
41 
41 
9 

! .'! 6 
;; "4i 

4 

7 

9 

10 


91 
20 
20 

7 

61 
13 

8 

4 

61 

6 
13 
18 
15 


13 

24 
32 

8 

91 
18 
12 

6 

91 

7 
20 
28 
25 


17 
32 
42 
11 
12 
24 
15 

8 
12 

9 
25 
45 
32 


20 
48 
60 
14 
16 
30 
20 
11 
16 
10 
34 
68 
45 


34 

85 


45 


54 


Double Y branch. 






Double hubs ' 

Eighth bends .... 
Half Y branches . ' 
Quarter bends. . . ' 


28 
351 

' 44 ' 
16 
351 


47 . 
591 • 

74 '. 

' 591 '■ 




Sixth bends 

Sleeves ' 




T branches 

Traps 


50 


104 . 




Y branches 


85 


151 . 




Size, inches 








2X8 


3X8 


4X12 


5X126 


X8 










Offsets, pounds each 








9 


15 


23 


30 


38 











200 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT OF VARIOUS MATERIALS AS COMPARED WITH 
WATER WEIGHING 62.5 LBS. 

The Specific Gravity of any substance is its weight compared with an 
equal bulk of pure water : a cubic foot of which weights 1,000 ounces, or 
61J pounds. 

The specific gravity of lead, for instance, is 11.37, because a cubic foot of 
lead weights 11.37 times as much as a cubic foot of water. 



Names of Substances. 



Aluminum | hammered: 

Amber. 

Anthracite 

Asphaltum 

BHSed. •.:::::::: 

Brick, common, hard. . . 
Cement, ground, loose. 

Charcoal 

Cherry, dry 

Clay, dry 

Coal, bituminous 

Coke, loose 

Concrete 

<?«HSiv.::::: 

Diamond 

Earth, humus 

Glass, common window. 
Gneiss, common 

I cast, pure, or 24 
Golds carat. ....... 

/ pure, hammered. 

Granite 

Gypsum, cast, dry. . . . 

Hornblende 

Ice 

Iron I wrought...':::: 

Ivory 

Lead 

Lime 

Lime, slaked 

Limestones. . 

Magnesium 



Specific 
Gravity. 



2.60 

2.75 

1.08 

1.40-1.70 

1.10-1.20 

8.40-8.70 

8.57 

1.53-2.30 

1.85 

0.44 

0.76-0.84 



1.80-2.60 

1.20-1.50 
0.55 
2.47 
8.79 

8.78-9.00 
3.52 

1.30-1.80 
2.64 

2.40-2.70 

19.28 

19.33 

2.50-3.00 

0.97 

3.00 

0.88-0.92 

7.10-7.50 

7.79 

1.82 

11.37 

2.30-3.20 

1.30-1.40 

2 . 46-2 . 84 

1.74 



Names of Substances. 



Mahogany 

Maple, dry 

Marble 

Masonry, stone, dry. . . . 
' ' brick, " 

Mercury at 32° Fahr 

Mica 

Nickel 

Oak, dry 

Petroleum at 59° Fahr. . 
Pine 

Platinum \ hammered.': 

Quartz , 

Saltpetre, Chili 

Kali 

Sand, fine, dry 

' ' wet 

' ' coarse 

Sandstone 

Sn H hammeredV::: 

Slate 

Snow, freshly fallen . . . 

Steel 

Sulphur 

Sodium 

Hrcfied.- ::::::::: 

Water, pure rain or dis 

tilled, at 39° F 

Water, sea 

Walnut, dry 

Wax 

*H3fci ::::::::•: 



Specific 
Gravity. 



0.56-1.09 

0.70 

2.52-2.85 

2.00-2.55 

1.50-1.60 

13.596 

2.80 

8 8 

0.69-1 : 03 

0.80 

0.35-0.60 

21.15 

21.3-21.5 

2.5-2.80 

2.26 

1.95-2.08 

1.40-1.65 

1.90-2.05 

1.40-1.50 

2.20-2.50 

10.48 

10.62 

2.60-2.70 

0.19 

7.26-7.86 

1.93-2.07 

0.978 

7.20 

7.30 

1.00 
1.03 
0.60-0.81 
0.95-0.98 
6.90 
7.20 



WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES. 

Average 
Names of Srbstances. Weight, 

Pounds. 

Aluminum 162 

Anthracite, solid, of Pennsylvania 93 

broken, loose 54 

" " moderately shaken. ................ 58 

" heaped bushel, loose (80) 

Ash, American, white, dry 38 

Asphaltum 87 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 201 

WEIGHT OF SUBSTANCES— (Continued). 

Average 
Names of Substances. Weight, 

Pounds. 

Brass (copper and zinc), cast „ 504 

" rolled 524 

Brick, best pressed 150 

" common, hard. 125 

" soft, inferior. 100 

Brickwork, pressed brick. 140 

" ordinary. . . 112 

Cement, hydraulic, ground, loose, American Rosendale. . 56 

Louisville.. 50 

" English, Portland 90 

Cherry, dry, 42 

Chestnut, dry. 41 

Clay, potters' dry. 119 

" in lump, loose. . 63 

Coal, bituminous, solid 84 

broken, loose. 49 

heaped bushel, loose. . (74) 

Coke, loose, of good coal 26 . 3 

" heaped bushel. ...... ............ (40) 

Copper, cast 542 

rolled 548 

Earth, common loam, dry, loose 76 

" moderately rammed. ....... 95 

" as a soft, flowing mud. ........................ 108 

Ebony, dry ..... 76 

Elm, dry 35 

Flint 162 

Glass, common window. ............................. 157 

Gneiss, common. 168 

Gold, cast, pure, or 24 carat. ......................... 1204 

11 pure, hammered. 1217 

Grain, at 60 lbs. per bushel. ... .................. 48 

Granite ... 170 

Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. 

Gypsum (plaster of Paris) ....................... 142 

Hemlock, dry. . . 25 

Hickory, dry 53 

Hornblende, black . 203 

Ice 58.7 



202 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

WEIGHT OF SUBSTANCES— (Continued). 

Average 
Names of Substances. Weight, 

Pounds. 

Iron, cast. . . . . . . . 450 

' ' wrought, purest. . . . 485 

" " average 480 

Ivory 114 

Lead 711 

Lignum vitae, dry. 83 

Lime, quick, ground, loose, or in small lumps 53 

' ' " " " thoroughly shaken 75 

" " " per struck bushel 66 

Limestones and marbles 168 

" ' ' loose, in irregular fragments 96 

Magnesium . 109 

Mahogany, Spanish, dry. 53 

' ' Honduras, dry 35 

Maple, dry 45 

Marbles, see Limestones. 

Masonry, of granite or limestone, well dressed. . 165 

" " mortar rubble 154 

"dry " (well scabbled). 138 

" " sandstone, well dressed. 144 

Mercury, at 32° Fahrenheit. 849 

Mica 183 

Mortar, hardened. 103 

Mud, dry, close 80 to 110 

Mud, wet, fluid, maximum 120 

Oak, live, dry 59 

Oak, white, dry 50 

" other kinds. ...... 32 to 45 

Petroleum 55 

Pine, white, dry. 25 

' ' yellow, Northern. ............................. 34 

" Southern............................... 45 

Platinum 1342 

Quartz, common, pure 165 

Rosin 69 

Salt, coarse, Syracuse, N. Y. 45 

" Liverpool, fine, for table use. 49 

Sand, of pure quartz, dry, loose 90 to 106 

" well shaken 99 to 117 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 203 

WEIGHT OF SUBSTANCES— (Continued). 

Average 

Names of Substances. Weight, 

Pounds. 

Sand, perfectly wet 120 to 140 

Sandstones, fit for building 151 

Shales, red or black 162 

Silver 655 

Slate 175 

Snow, freshly fallen 5 to 12 

" moistened and compacted by rain 15 to 50 

Spruce, dry 25 

Steel 490 

Sulphur 125 

Sycamore, dry 37 

Tar 62 

Tin, cas J - 459 

Turf or peat, dry, unpressed 20 to 30 

Walnut, black, dry 38 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 60° Fahrenheit 62£ 

" sea 64 

Wax, bees 60 . 5 

Zinc or spelter 437 . 5 

Green timbers usually weigh from one-fifth to one-half more 
than dry. 



WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS. 

Pounds. 

barrel of lime 200 to 230 

cement (hydraulic or Rosendale) 300 

(Portland) 400 

' ' (Scotch, Roman) 350 

fire-clay (American) 300 

(English) 350 

brick-dust 350 

marble-dust 350 

plaster, California 260 

" Wotherspoon (Eastern) 275 

f ' (ground gypsum or land) 320 

Fire-brick 6£ to 7 pounds each. 



204 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Approximate Weight of Roof Coverings. 

Weight in pounds 
Material. per square of roof. 

Ash sheathing, 1 inch thick 500 

Chestnut sheathing, 1 inch thick 400 

Copper, 16 ounce, standing seam 150 

Felt and asphalt, without sheathing 150 

Felt and gravel, without sheathing 800 to 1000 

Glass with skylight frame y& inch to § inch thick. . . 250 to 700 

Hemlock sheathing, 1 inch thick 200 

Iron, corrugated, No. 20, without sheathing ?..... 250 

Iron, galvanized, flat 100 to 350 

Lath and plaster ceiling (ordinary) 600 to 800 

Lead, about $ inch thick 600 to 800 

Maple sheathing, 1 inch thick 400 

Mackite, 1 inch thick, with plaster 1000 

Neponset roofing felt, 2 layers 50 

Oak sheathing, 1 inch thick 500 

Slate, I inch thick 900 

Slate, ^ inch thick 675 

Slate, £ inch thick 450 

Shingles, 6 inches X 18 inches, 6 inches to the weather 200 

Sheet iron, ^ inch thick 300 

Sheet iron, ^ inch thick, with laths 400 

Spruce sheathing, 1 inch thick 250 

Slag roofing, four ply 400 

Tiles (plain) 10^ inches X 6^ inches X f inches, 5J inches 

to weather 1800 

Tiles (Spanish) 14^ inches X 10J inches, 1\ inches to 

weather 850 

Tiles, plain with mortar 2000 to 3000 

Terne plate (tin), IC, without sheathing 50 

Terne plate (tin), IX, without sheathing 65 

White pine sheathing, 1 inch thick 250 

Yellow pine sheathing, 1 inch thick 400 



ANGLES OF ROOFS AS COMMONLY USED. 



Propor- 
tion of 


Angle. 


Length of 

Rafter to 

Rise. 


Propor- 
tion of 
Rise to 
Span. 


Angle. 


Length of 

Rafter to 

Rise. 


Rise to 
Span. 


Deg. 


Min. 


Deg. 


Min. 


* 
\ 

1 


45 
33 


4l" 


1.4142 

1.8028 


1 

1 


26 
21 


34 

48 


2.2361 
2.6926 


2V3 


30 




2.0000 


1 

6 


18 


26 


3.1623 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



205 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL. 

Per Lineal, Foot. 

One Cubic Foot Weighing 489.6 Lbs. 



Thick- 




















ness in 


l" 


H" 


W 


If" 


2" 


2i" 


2*" 


2£" 


12'" 


Inches. 




















A 


.638 


.797 


.957 


1.11 


1.28 


1.44 


1.59 


1.75 


7.65 


l 


.850 


1.06 


1.28 


1.49 


1.70 


1.91 


2.12 


2.34 


10.20 


A 


1.06 


1.33 


1.59 


1.86 


2.12 


2.39 


2.65 


2.92 


12.75 


i 


1.28 


1.59 


1.92 


2.23 


2.55 


2.87 


3.19 


3.51 


15.30 


A 


1.49 


1.86 


2.23 


2.60 


2.98 


3.35 


3.72 


4.09 


17.85 


h 


1.70 


2.12 


2.55 


2.98 


3.40 


3.83 


4.25 


4.67 


20.40 


A 


1.92 


2.39 


2.87 


3.35 


3.83 


4.30 


4.78 


5.26 


22.95 


f 


2.12 


2.65 


3.19 


3.72 


4.25 


4.78 


5.31 


5.84 


25.50 


M 


2.34 


2.92 


3.51 


4.09 


4.67 


5.26 


5.84 


6.43 


28.05 


1 


2.55 


3.19 


3.83 


4.47 


5.10 


5.75 


6.38 


7.02 


30.60 


tt 


2.76 


3.45 


4.14 


4.84 


5.53 


6.21 


6.90 


7.60 


33.15 


i 


2.98 


3.72 


4.47 


5.20 


5.95 


6.69 


7.44 


8.18 


35.70 


if 


3.19 


3.99 


4.78 


5.58 


6.38 


7.18 


7.97 


8.77 


38.25 


1 


3.40 


4.25 


5.10 


5.95 


6.80 


7.65 


8.50 


9.35 


40.80 


1A 


3.61 


4.52 


5.42 


6.32 


7.22 


8.13 


9.03 


9.93 


43.35 


i* 


3.83 


4.78 


5.74 


6.70 


7.65 


8.61 


9.57 


10.52 


45.90 


1A 


4.04 


5.05 


6.06 


7.07 


8.08 


9.09 


10.10 


11.11 


48.45 


H 


4.25 


5.31 


6.38 


7.44 


8.50 


9.57 


10.63 


11.69 


51.00 


1A 


4.46 


5.58 


6.69 


7.81 


8.93 


10.04 


11.16 


12.27 


53.55 


if 


4.67 


5.84 


7.02 


8.18 


9.35 


10.52 


11.69 


12.85 


56.10 


1A 


4.89 


6.11 


7.34 


8.56 


9.78 


11.00 


12.22 


13.44 


58.65 


li 


5.10 


6.38 


7.65 


8.93 


10.20 


11.48 


12.75 


14.03 


61.20 


1A 


5.32 


6.64 


7.97 


9.30 


10.63 


11.95 


13.28 


14.61 


63.75 


if 


5.52 


6.90 


8.29 


9.67 


11.05 


12.43 


13.81 


15.19 


66.30 


itt 


5.74 


7.17 


8.61 


10.04 


11.47 


12.91 


14.34 


15.78 


68.85 


if 


5.95 


7.44 


8.93 


10.42 


11.90 


13.40 


14.88 


16.37 


71.40 


lit 


6.16 


7.70 


9.24 


10.79 


12.33 


13.86 


15.40 


16.95 


73.95 


l* 


6.38 


7.97 


9.57 


11.15 


12.75 


14.34 


15.94 


17.53 


76.50 


lit 


6.59 


8.24 


9.88 


11.53 


13.18 


14.83 


16.47 


18.12 


79.05 


2 


6.80 


8.50 


10.20 


11.90 


13.60 


15.30 


17.00 


18.70 


81.60 



206 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL— (Continued). 
Per Lineal Foot. 



Thick- 




















ness in 


3" 


31" 


3£" 


3f" 


4" 


41" 


4*" 


4f" 


12" 


Inches. 




















A 


1.91 


2.07 


2.23 


2.39 


2.55 


2.71 


2.87 


3.03 


7.65 


J 


2.55 


2.76 


2.98 


3.19 


3.40 


3.61 


3.83 


4.04 


10.20 


A 


3.19 


3.45 


3.72 


3.99 


4.25 


4.52 


4.78 


5.05 


12.75 


f 


3.83 


4.15 


4.47 


4.78 


5.10 


5.42 


5.74 


6.06 


15.30 


A 


4.46 


4.83 


5.20 


5.58 


5.95 


6.32 


6.70 


7.07 


17.85 


h 


5.10 


5.53 


5.95 


6.38 


6.80 


7.22 


7.65 


8.08 


20.40 


A 


5.74 


6.22 


6.70 


7.17 


7.65 


8.13 


8.61 


9.09 


22.95 


f 


6.38 


6.91 


7.44 


7.97 


8.50 


9.03 


9.57 


10.10 


25.50 


tt 


7.02 


7.60 


8.18 


8.76 


9.35 


9.93 


10.52 


11.11 


28.05 


f 


7.65 


8.29 


8.93 


9.57 


10.20 10.84 


11.48 


12.12 


30.60 


if 


8.29 


8.98 


9.67 


10.36 


11.0511.74 


12.43 


13.12 


33.15 


1 


8.93 


9.67 


10.41 


11.16 


11.90 12.65 


13.39 


14.13 


35.70 


it 


9.57 


10.36 


11.16 


11.95 


12.7513.55 


14.34 


15.14 


38.25 


1 


10.20 


11.05 


11.90 


12.75 


13.60J14.45 


15.30 


16.15 


40.80 


1* 


10.84 


11.74 


12.65 


13.55 


14.4515.35 


16.26 


17.16 


43.35 


l| 


11.48 


12.43 


13.39 


14.34 


15.30,16.26 


17.22 


18.17 


45.90 


1A 


12.12 


13.12 


14.13 


15.14 


16.1517.16 


18.17 


19.18 


48.45 


H. 


12.75 


13.81 


14.87 


15.94 


17.00 


18.06 


19.13 


20.19 


51.00 


1A 


13.39 


14.50 


15.62 


16.74 


17.85 


18.96 


20.08 


21.20 


53.55 


if 


14.03 


15.20 


16.36 


17.53 


18.7019.87 


21.04 


22.21 


56.10 


iA 


14.66 


15.88 


17.10 


18.33 


19.55 20.77 


21.99 


23.22 


58.65 


4 


15.30 


16.58 


17.85 


19.13 


20.40 21.68 


22.95 


24.23 


61.20 


1A 


15.94 


17.27 


18.60 


19.92 


21.25 22.58 


23.91 


25.24 


63.75 


if 


16.58 


17.96 


19.34 


20.72 


22.10 23.48 


24.87 


26.25 


66.30 


itt 


17.22 


18.65 


20.08 


21.51 


22. 95 1 24. 38 


25.82 


27.26 


68.85 


if 


17.85 


19.34 


20.83 


22.32 


23.80 25.29 


26.78 


28.27 


71.40 


1*1 


18.49 


20.03 


21.57 


23.11 


24.65'26.19 


27.73 


29.27 


73.95 


if 


19.13 


20.72 


22.31 


23.91 


25.50|27. 10 


28.69 


30.28 


76.50 


1H 


19.77 


21.41 


23.06 


24.70 


26.35 28.00 


29.64 


31.29 


79.05 


2 


20.40 


22.10 


23.80 


25.50 


27.20 28.90 


30.60 


32.30 


81.60 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



207 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL— (.Continued). 
Per Lineal Foot. 



Thick- 




















ness in 
Inches. 


5" 


5*" 


5*" 


5f" 


6" 


6i" 


6*" 


6f" 


12" 


ft 


3.19 


3.35 


3.51 


3.67 


3.83 


3.99 


4.14 


4.30 


7.65 


i 


4.25 


4.46 


4.67 


4.89 


5.10 


5.31 


5.53 


5.74 


10.20 


ft 


5.31 


5.58 


5.84 


6.11 


6.38 


6.64 


6.90 


7.17 


12.75 


f 


6.38 


6.69 


7.02 


7.34 


7.65 


7.97 


8.29 


8.61 


15.30 


ft 


7.44 


7.81 


8.18 


8.56 


8.93 


9.29 


9.67 


10.04 


17.85 


i 


8.50 


8.93 


9.35 


9.77 


10.20 


10.63 


11.05 


11.48 


20.40 


ft 


9.57 


10.04 


10.52 


11.00 


11.48 


11.95 


12.43 


12.91 


22.95 


f 


10.63 


11.16 


11.69 


12.22 


12.75 


13.28 


13.81 


14.34 


25.50 


H 


11.69 


12.27 


12.85 


13.44 


14.03 


14.61 


15.20 


15.78 


28.05 


I 


12.75 


13.39 


14.03 


14.67 


15.30 


15.94 


16.58 


17.22 


30.60 


H 


13.81 


14.50 


15.19 


15.88 


16.58 


17.27 


17.95 


18.65 


33.15 


* 


14.87 


15.62 


16.36 


17.10 


17.85 


18.60 


19.34 


20.08 


35.70 


if 


15.94 


16.74 


17.53 


18.33 


19.13 


19.92 


20.72 


21.51 


38.25 


1 


17.00 


17.85 


18.70 


19.55 


20.40 


21.25 


22.10 


22.95 


40.80 


1ft 


18.06 


18.96 


19.87 


20.77 


21.68 


22.58 


23.48 


24.39 


43.35 


1* 


19.13 


20.08 


21.04 


21.99 


22.95 


23.91 


24.87 


25.82 


45.90 


1ft 


20.19 


21.20 


22.21 


23.22 


24.23 


25.23 


26.24 


27.25 


48.45 


H 


21.25 


22.32 


23.38 


24.44 


25.50 


26.56 


27.62 


28.69 


51.00 


1ft 


22.32 


23.43 


24.54 


25.66 


26.78 


27.90 


29.01 


30.12 


53.55 


if 


23.38 


24.54 


25.71 


26.88 


28.05 


29.22 


30.39 


31.56 


56.10 


1ft 


24.44 


25.66 


26.88 


28.10 


29.33 


30.55 


31.77 


32.99 


58.65 


li 


25.50 


26.78 


28.05 


29.33 


30.60 


31.88 


33.15 


34.43 


61.20 


ift 


26.57 


27.89 


29.22 


30.55 


31.88 


33.20 


34.53 


35.86 


63.75 


if 


27.63 


29.01 


30.39 


31.77 


33.15 


34.53 


35.91 


37.29 


66.30 


ift 


28.69 


30.12 


31.55 


32.99 


34.43 


35.86 


37.30 


38.73 


68.85 


if 


29.75 


31.24 


32.73 


34.22 


35.70 


37.19 


38.68 


40.17 


71.40 


lit 


30.81 


32.35 


33.89 


35.43 


36.98 


38.52 


40.05 


41.60 


73.95 


if 


31.87 


33.47 


35.06 


36.65 


38.25 


39.85 


41.44 


43.03 


76.50 


lit 


32.94 


34.59 


36.23 


37.88 


39.53 


41.17 


42.82 


44.46 


79.05 


2 


34.00 


35.70 


37.40 


39.10 


40.80 


42.50 


44.20 


45.90 


81.60 



208 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL— (Continued). 
Per Lineal Foot. 



Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 



I 

A 

f 

ii 

f 

ft 

1 



H 
i& 
H 

1A 
if 
1A 
i* 

ift 
H 
itt 
if 

1ft 
if 

115 
A 16 

2 



4.46 
5.95 

7.44 

8.93 

10.41 

11.90 

13.39 

14.87 
16.36 
17.85 

19.34 
20.83 
22.32 
23.80 

25.29 

26.78 
28.26 
29.75 

31.23 
32.72 
34.21 
35.70 

37.19 
38.67 
40.16 
41.65 

43.14 
44.63 
46.12 
47.60 



7i' 



4.62 
6.16 

7.70 

9.25 

10.78 

12.32 

13.86 
15.40 
16.94 
18.49 

20.03 
21.57 
23.11 
24.65 

26.19 
27.73 
29.27 
30.81 

32.35 
33.89 
35.44 
36.98 

38.51 
40.05 
41.59 
43.14 

44.68 
46.22 
47.76 
49.30 



7¥ 



4.78 
6.36 

7.97 

9.57 

11.16 

12.75 

14.34 
15.94 
17.53 
19.13 

20.72 
22.32 
23.91 
25.50 

27.10 

28.68 
30.28 
31.88 

33.48 
35.06 
36.66 
38.26 

39.84 
41.44 
43.03 
44.63 

46.22 

47.82 
49.41 
51.00 



7f" 



4.94 
6.58 

8.23 

9.88 

11.53 

13.18 

14.82 
16.47 
18.12 
19.77 

21.41 
23.05 
24.70 
26.35 

28.00 
29.64 
31.29 
32.94 

34.59 
36.23 

37.88 
39.53 

41.17 
42.82 
44.47 
46.12 

47.76 
49.40 
51.05 

52.70 



5.10 
6.80 

8.50 
10.20 
11.90 
13.60 

15.30 
17.00 
18.70 
20.40 

22.10 
23.80 
25.50 
27.20 

28.90 
30.60 
32.30 
34.00 

35.70 
37.40 
39.10 
40.80 

42.50 
44.20 
45.90 
47.60 

49.30 
51.00 
52.70 
54.40 



81' 



5.26 
7.01 

8.76 
10.52 
12.27 
14.03 

15.78 
17.53 
19.28 
21.04 

22.79 
24.55 
26.30 
28.05 

29.80 
31.56 
33.31 
35.06 

36.81 
38.57 
40.32 

42.08 

43.83 
45.58 
47.33 
49.09 

50.84 
52.60 
54.35 
56.10 



w 



5.42 
7.22 

9.03 
10.84 
12.64 
14.44 

16.26 
18.06 
19.86 
21.68 

23.48 
25.30 
27.10 
28.90 

30.70 
32.52 
34.32 
36.12 

37.93 
39.74 
41.54 
43.35 

45.16 
46.96 
48.76 
50.58 

52.38 
54.20 
56.00 
57.80 



sr 



5.58 
7.43 

9.29 
11.16 
13.02 
14.87 

16.74 
18.59 
20.45 
22.32 

24.17 
26.04 

27.89 
29.75 

31.61 
33.47 
35.33 
37.20 

39.05 
40.91 

42.77 
44.63 

46.49 
48.34 
50.20 
52.07 

53.92 
55.79 
57.64 
59.50 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



209 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL— (Continued). 
Per Lineal Foot. 



9|' 



9*' 



9f 



10' 



10i' 



W 



lor 



12" 



5.74 
7.65 

9.56 
11.48 
13.40 
15.30 

17.22 
19.13 
21.04 
22.96 

24.86 
26.78 
28.69 
30.60 

32.52 
34.43 
36.34 
38.26 

40.16 
42.08 
44.00 
45.90 

47.82 
49.73 
51.64 
53.56 

55.46 
57.38 
59.29 
61.20 



5.90 
7.86 

9.83 
11.80 
13.76 
15.73 

17.69 
19.65 
21.62 
23.59 

25.55 
27.52 
29.49 
31.45 

33.41 
35.38 
37.35 
39.31 

41.28 
43.25 
45.22 

47.18 

49.14 
51.10 
53.07 
55.04 

57.00 
58.97 
60.94 
62.90 



6.06 

8.08 

10.10 
12.12 
14.14 
16.16 

18.18 
20.19 
22.21 
24.23 

26.24 
28.26 
30.28 
32.30 

34.32 
36.34 
38.36 
40.37 

42.40 
44.41 
46.44 
48.45 

50.48 
52.49 
54.51 
56.53 

58.54 
60.56 
62.58 
64.60 



6.22 
8.29 

10.36 
12.44 
14.51 
16.58 

18.65 
20.72 
22.79 
24.86 

26.94 
29.01 
31.08 
33.15 

35.22 
37.29 
39.37 
41.44 

43.52 

45.58 
47.66 
49.73 

51.80 

53.87 
55.94 
58.01 

60.09 
62.16 
64.23 
66.30 



6.38 
8.50 

10.62 
12.75 
14. 
17.00 

19.14 
21.25 
23.38 
25.50 

27.62 
29.75 
31.88 
34.00 

36.12 
38.25 
40.38 
42.50 

44.64 
46.75 
48.88 
51.00 

53.14 
55.25 

57.38 
59.50 

61.62 
63.75 

65.88 
68.00 



6.54 
8.71 

10.89 
13.07 
15.25 
17.42 

19.61 
21.78 
23.96 
26.14 

28.32 
30.50 
32.67 
34.85 

37.03 
39.21 
41.39 
43.56 

45.75 
47.92 
50.10 

52.28 

54.46 
56.63 
58.81 
60.99 

63.17 
65.35 
67.52 
69.70 



6.70 
8.92 

11.16 
13.39 
15.62 
17.85 

20.08 
22.32 
24.54 
26.78 

29.00 
31.24 
33.48 
35.70 

37.92 
40.17 
42.40 
44.63 

46.86 
49.08 
51.32 
53.55 

55.78 
58.02 
60.24 
62.48 

64.70 
66.94 
69.18 
71.40 



6. 
9.14 

11.42 

13.71 
15.99 
18.28 

20.56 
22.85 
25.13 
27.42 

29.69 
31.98 
34.28 
36.55 

38.83 
41.12 
43.40 
45.69 

47.97 
50.25 
52.54 
54.83 

57.11 
59.40 
61.68 
63.97 

66.24 
68.53 
70.83 
73.10 



7.65 
10.20 

12.75 
15.30 
17.85 
20.40 

22.95 
25.50 
28.05 
30.60 

33.15 
35.70 
38.25 
40.80 

43.35 
45.90 
48.45 
51.00 

53.55 
56.10 
58.65 
61.20 

63.75 
66.30 

68.85 
71.40 

73.95 
76.50 
79.05 
81.60 



210 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL— (Continued). 
Per Lineal Foot. 



nesa m 
Inches 



11' 



7.02 
9.34 

11.68 
14.03 
16.36 

18.70 

21.02 
23.38 
25.70 
28.05 

30.40 
32.72 
35.06 
37.40 

39.74 
42.08 
44.42 
46.76 

49.08 
51.42 
53.76 
56.10 

58.42 
60.78 
63.10 
65.45 

67.80 
70.12 

72.46 
74.80 



U*' 



7.17 
9.57 

11.95 
14.35 
16.74 
19.13 

21.51 
23.91 
26.30 

28. 

31.08 
33.47 
35.86 
38.25 

40.64 
43.04 
45.42 

47.82 

50.20 
52.59 
54.99 
57.37 

59.76 
62.16 
64.55 
66.93 

69.33 
71.72 
74.11 
76.50 



ny 



7.32 
9.78 

12.22 
14.68 
17.12 
19.55 

22.00 
24.44 
26.88 
29.33 

31.76 
34.21 
36.66 
39.10 

41.54 
44.00 
46.44 



51.32 
53.76 
56.21 
58.65 

61.10 
63.54 
65.98 
68.43 

70.86 
73.31 

75.76 
78.20 



llf 



7.49 
10.00 

12.49 
14.99 
17.49 
19.97 

22.48 
24.97 
27.47 
29.97 

32.46 
34.95 
37.46 
39.95 

42.54 
44.94 
47.45 
49.94 

52.44 
54.93 
57.43 
59.93 

62.43 
64.92 
67.42 
69.92 

72.41 
74.90 
77.41 
79.90 



12' 



7.65 
10.20 

12.75 
15.30 
17.85 
20.40 

22.95 
25.50 
28.05 
30.60 

33.15 

35.70 

38.25 
40.80 

43.35 
45.90 
48.45 
51.00 

53.55 
56.10 
58.65 
61.20 

63.75 
66.30 

68.85 
71.40 

73.95 
76.50 
79.05 
81.60 



12*' 



7.82 
10.42 

13.01 
15.62 
18.23 
20.82 

23.43 
26.03 
28.64 
31.25 

33.83 
36.44 
39.05 
41.65 

44.25 
46.86 
49.46 
52.06 

54.67 

57.27 
59.87 
62.48 

65.08 
67.68 
70.29 
72.90 

75.48 
78.09 
80.70 
83.30 



12*' 



7.98 
10.63 

13.28 
15.94 
18.60 
21.25 

23.90 
26.56 
29.22 
31.88 

34.53 
37.19 
39.84 
42.50 

45.16 

47.82 
50.46 
53.12 

55.78 
58.44 
60.10 
63.75 

66.40 
69.06 
71.72 

74.38 

77.03 
79.69 
82.34 
85.00 



12*' 



8.13 
10.84 

13.55 
16.26 
18.97 
21.67 

24.39 
27.09 
29.80 
32.52 

35.22 
37.93 
40.64 
43.35 

46.06 
48.77 
51.48 
54.19 

56.90 
59.60 
62.32 
65.03 

67.74 
70.44 
73.15 

75.87 

78.57 
81.28 
83.99 
86.70 



«*H ■+* +3 



m 0} 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



211 



WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES OF ROUND BARS. 

One cubic foot of steel weighing 489.6 lbs. 



Thickness 
or Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 


Weight of 
□ Bar 

One Foot 
Long. 


Weight of 

O Bar 

One Foot 

Long. 


Area of 

D Bar 

in Square 

Inches. 


Area of 

O Bar 

in Square 

Inches. 


Circum- 
ference of 

O Bar 
in Inches. 




i 


.013 
.053 
.119 


.010 
.042 
.094 


.0039 
.0156 
.0352 


.0031 
.0123 
.0276 


.1963 
.3927 
.5890 


i 


.212 
.333 

.478 
.651 


.167 
.261 
.375 
.511 


.0625 
.0977 
.1406 
.1914 


.0491 
.0767 
.1104 
.1503 


.7854 

.9817 

1.1781 

1.3744 


i 
A 

f 


.850 
1.076 
1.328 
1.608 


.667 

.845 

1.043 

1.262 


.2500 
.3164 
.3906 

.4727 


.1963 

.2485 
.3068 
.3712 


1.5708 
1.7671 
1.9635 
2.1598 


f 
If 

-I 
if 


1.913 
2.245 
2.603 
2.989 


1.502 
1.763 
2.044 
2.347 


.5625 
.6602 
.7656 

.8789 


.4418 
.5185 
.6013 
.6903 


2.3562 
2.5525 

2.7489 
2.9452 


l 


3.400 
3.838 
4.303 
4.795 


2.670 
3.014 
3.379 
3.766 


1.0000 
1.1289 
1.2656 
1.4102 


.7854 

.8866 

.9940 

1 . 1075 


3.1416 
3.3379 
3 . 5343 
3.7306 


i 

I 


5.312 

5.857 
6.428 
7.026 


4.173 
4.600 
5.049 
5.518 


1.5625 
1 . 7227 
1.8906 
2.0664 


1.2272 
1.3530 
1.4849 
1.6230 


3.9270 
4.1233 
4.3197 
4.5160 


A 

f 
is 


7.650 
8.301 

8.978 
9.682 


6.008 
6.520 
7.051 
7.604 


2.2500 
2.4414 
2.6406 

2.8477 


1.7671 
1.9175 
2.0739 
2.2365 


4.7124 
4.9087 
5.1051 
5.3014 


f 
if 
1 
if 


10.41 
11.17 
11.95 
12.76 


8.178 
8.773 
9.388 
10.02 


3.0625 
3.2852 
3.5156 
3.7539 


2.4053 
2.5802 
2.7612 
2.9483 


5.4978 
5.6941 
5.8905 
6.0868 



212 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES OF ROUND BARS— {Continued). 



Thickness 
or Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 


Weight of 
D Bar 

One Foot 
Long. 


Weight of 
OBar 

One Foot 
Long. 


Area of 

D Bar 

in Square 

Inches. 


Area of 

O Bar 

in Square 

Inches. 


Circum- 
ference of 

OBar 
m Inches. 


2 

£ 

3 
T6 


13.60 
14.46 
15.35 
16.27 


10.68 
11.36 
12.06 

12.78 


4.0000 
4.2539 
4.5156 

4.7852 


3.1416 
3.3410 
3.5466 
3.7583 


6.2832 
6.4795 
6.6759 
6.8722 


i 

5 

T6 
3 

8 


17.22 
18.19 
19.18 
20.20 


13.52 

14.28 
15.07 
15.86 


5.0625 
5.3477 
5.6406 
5.9414 


3.9761 

4.2000 
4.4301 
4.6664 


7.0686 
7.2649 
7.4613 
7.6576 


f 


21.25 
22.33 
23.43 
24.56 


16.69 
17.53 
18.40 
19.29 


6.2500 
6.5664 
6.8906 

7.2227 


4.9087 
5.1572 
5.4119 
5.6727 


7.8540 
8.0503 
8.2467 
8.4430 


f 

it 

7 

¥ 

15 

16 


25.71 
26.90 
28.10 
29.34 


20.20 
21.12 
22.07 
23.04 


7.5625 
7.9102 
8.2656 
8.6289 


5.9396 
6.2126 
6.4918 
6.7771 


8.6394 
8.8357 
9.0321 
9.2284 


3 

8 
3 
16 


30.60 
31.89 
33.20 
34.55 


24.03 
25.04 
26.08 
27.13 


9.0000 
9.3789 
9.7656 
10.160 


7.0686 
7.3662 
7.6699 
7.9798 


9.4248 
9.6211 
9.8175 
10.014 


i 

I 

7 


35.92 
37.31 
38.73 

40.18 


28.20 
29.30 
30.42 
31.56 


10.563 
10.973 
11.391 
11.816 


8.2958 
8.6179 
8.9462 
9.2806 


10.210 
10.407 
10.603 
10.799 


f 


41.65 
43.14 
44.68 
46.24 


32.71 
33.90 
35.09 
36.31 


12.250 
12.691 
13.141 
13.598 


9.6211 
9.9678 
10.321 
10.680 


10.996 
11.192 
11.388 
11.585 


t 

1 
if 


47.82 
49.42 
51.05 
52.71 


37.56 
38.81 
40.10 
41.40 


14.063 
14.535 
15.016 

15.504 


11.045 
11.416 
11.793 

12.177 


11.781 
11.977 
12.174 
12.370 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



213 



WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND] BARS AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES OF ROUND BARS— (Continued). 



Thickness 
or Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 


Weight of 

D Bar 

One Foot 

Long. 


Weight of 
O Bar 

One Foot 
Long. 


Area of 
_ n Bar 
in Square 

Inches. 


Area of 
m O Bar 
in Square 

Inches. 


Circum- 
ference of 

OBar 
in Inches. 


4 


54.40 


42.73 


16.000 


12.566 


12.566 


A 


56.11 


44.07 


16.504 


12.962 


12.763 


1 


57.85 


45.44 


17.016 


13.364 


12.959 


3 

T6 


59.62 


46.83 


17.535 


13 . 772 


13.155 


1 


61.41 


48.24 


18.063 


14.186 


13.352 


A 


63.23 


49.66 


18.598 


14.607 


13 . 548 


f 


65.08 


51.11 


19.141 


15.033 


13.744 


A 


66.95 


52.58 


19.691 


15.466 


13.941 


\ 


68.85 


.54.07 


20.250 


15.904 


14.137 


h 


70.78 


55.59 


20.816 


16.349 


14.334 


f 


72.73 


57.12 


21.391 


16.800 


14.530 


ft 


74.70 


58.67 


21.973 


17.257 


14.726 


4 


76.71 


60.25 


22.563 


17.721 


14.923 


if 


78.74 


61.84 


23.160 


18.190 


15.119 


7 
"g" 


80.81 


63.46 


23.766 


18.665 


15.315 


if 


82.89 


65.10 


24.379 


19.147 


15.512 


5 


85.00 


66.76 


25.000 


19.635 


15.708 


h 


87.14 


68.44 


25.629 


20.129 


15.904 


\ 


89.30 


70.14 


26.266 


20.629 


16.101 


A 


91.49 


71.86 


26.910 


21.135 


16.297 


T6 


93.72 


73.60 


27.563 


21 . 648 


16.493 


95.96 


75.37 


28.223 


22.166 


16.690 


f 


98.23 


77.15 


28.891 


22.691 


16.886 


A 


100.5 


78.95 


29.566 


23.221 


17.082 


i 


102.8 


80.77 


30.250 


23.758 


17.279 


A 


105.2 


82.62 


30.941 


24.301 


17.475 


f 


107.6 


84.49 


31 . 641 


24.850 


17.671 


ft 


110.0 


86.38 


32.348 


25.406 


17.868 


I 


112.4 


88.29 


33.063 


25.967 


18.064 


if 


114.9 


90.22 


33 . 785 


26.535 


18.261 


f 


117.4 


92.17 


34.516 


27.109 


18.457 


if 


119.9 


94.14 


35.254 


27.688 


18.653 



214 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES OF ROUND BARS— (Continued). 



Thickness 
or Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 


Weight of 
D Bar 

One Foot 
Long 


Weight of 
OBar 

One Foot 
Long. 


Area of 
. □ Bar 
in Square 

Inches. 


Area of 
# OBar 
in Square 

Inches. 


Circum- 
ference of 

OBar 
in Inches. 


6 


122.4 


96.14 


36.000 


28.274 


18.850 


A 


125.0 


98.14 


36.754 


28.866 


19.046 


i 


127.6 


100.2 


37.516 


29.465 


19.242 


& 


130.2 


102.2 


38.285 


30.069 


19.439 


i 


132.8 


104.3 


39.063 


30.680 


19.635 


& 


135.5 


106.4 


39.848 


31.296 


19.831 


1 


138.2 


10S.5 


40.641 


31.919 


20.028 


& 


140.9 


110.7 


41.441 


32.548 


20.224 


\ 


143.6 


112.8 


42.250. 


33.183 


20.420 


& 


146.5 


114.9 


43.066 


33.824 


20.617 


f 


149.2 


117.2 


43 . 891 


34.472 


20.813 


tt 


152.1 


119.4 


44.723 


35.125 


21.009 


1 


154.9 


121.7 


45.563 


35.785 


21.206 


it 


157.8 


123.9 


46.410 


36.450 


21.402 


1 


160.8 


126.2 


47.266 


37.122 


21.598 


if 


163.6 


128.5 


48.129 


37.800 


21.795 


7 


166.6 


130.9 


49.000 


38.485 


21.991 


A 


169.6 


133.2 


49.879 


39.175 


22.187 


1 


172.6 


135.6 


50.766 


39.871 


22.384 


A 


175.6 


137.9 


51.660 


40.574 


22.580 


i 


178.7 


140.4 


52.563 


41.282 


22.777. 


A 


181.8 


142.8 


53.473 


41.997 


22.973 


1 


184.9 


145.3 


54.391 


42.718 


23 . 169 


188.1 


147.7 


55.316 


43.445 


23.366 


* 


191.3 


150.2 


56.250 


44.179 


23 . 562 


A 


194.4 


152.7 


57.191 


44.918 


23.758 


f 


197.7 


155.2 


58.141 


45.664 


23.955 


tt 


200.9 


157.8 


59.098 


46.415 


24.151 


t 


204.2 


160.3 


60.063 


47.173 


24.347 


it 


207.6 


163.0 


61.035 


47.937 


24.544 


t 


210.8 


165.6 


62.016 


48.707 


24.740 


if 


214.2 


168.2 


63.004 


49.483 


24.936 















TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



215 



WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES OF ROUND BARS— (Continued). 



Thickness 
or Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 


Weight of 
□ Bar 

One Foot 
Long. 


Weight of 
OBar 

One Foot 
Long. 


Area of 

D Bar 

in Square 

Inches. 


Area of 

OBar 

in Square 

Inches. 


Circum- 
ference of 
. OBar 
in Inches. 


8 

1 


217.6 
221.0 
224.5 
228.0 


171.0 
173.6 
176.3 
179.0 


64.000 
65.004 
66.016 
67.035 


50 . 265 
51.054 
51 . 849 
52.649 


25.133 
25.329 
25.525 

25.722 




231.4 
234.9 
238.5 
242.0 


181.8 
184.5 
187.3 
190.1 


68.063 
69.098 
70.141 
71.191 


53.456 
54.269 

55.088 
55.914 


25.918 
26.114 
26.311 
26.507 


f 
ft 


245.6 . 
249.3 
252.9 
256.6 


193.0 
195.7 
198.7 
201.6 


72.250 
73.316 
74.391 
75.473 


56.745 
57 . 583 
58.426 
59 . 276 


26,704 
26.900 
27.096 
27.293 


I 

if 

if 


260.3 
264.1 
267.9 
271.6 


204.4 
207.4 
210.3 
213.3 


76 . 563 
77.660 
78.766 
79.879 


60.132 
60.994 
61.862 
62.737 


27.489 
27.685 
27.882 
28.078 


9 

I 
A 


275.4 
279.3 

283.2 
287.0 


216.3 
219.3 
222.4 
225.4 


81.000 
82.129 
83 . 266 
84.410 


63.617 
64 . 505 
65.397 
66.296 


28.274 
28.471 
28.667 
28.863 


i 

f 


290.9 
294.9 
298.9 
302.8 


228.5 
231.5 
234.7 
237.9 


85.563 
86 . 723 
87.891 
89.066 


67 . 201 
68.112 
69.029 
69.953 


29.060 
29 . 256 
29.452 
29 . 649 


f 
ft 


306.8 
310.9 
315.0 
319.1 


241.0 

244.2 
247.4 
250.6 


90.250 
91.441 
92.641 
93.848 


70 . 882 
71.818 
72.760 
73 . 708 


29.845 
30.041 
30.238 
30.434 


f 
if 

1 
if 


323.2 
327.4 
331.6 
335.8 


253.9 
257.1 
260.4 
263.7 


95.063 
96.285 
97.516 
98.754 


74 . 662 
75.622 
76.589 
77.561 


30.631 
30.827 
31.023 
31.022 



PART III. 

HYDRAULICS, DATA ON WATER, SEWERS, 
ETC., EXCAVATION TABLES, TIN AND 
SHEET METAL WORK, SIZES, WEIGHTS, 
ETC., OF SHEET METAL. 



Hydraulics. 

TABLE SHOWING CAPACITIES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS, ALSO 
USEFUL DATA REGARDING SAME. 





Size 

Pipe 

for 

Suction, 

Inches. 


Econom- 


Horse- 


Diam- 




ical 


Power 


eter and 


(Diam- 


Capacity, 


Required 


Face of 


eter Dis- 
charge 
Pipe). 


Gallons 

per 
Minute. 


for each 

Foot 
Elevation. 


Pulley 

in 
Inches. 


H 


2 


70 


.058 


6X 6 


li 


2 


90 


.075 


7X 8 


2 


3 


120 


.10 


8X 8 


2* 


3 


180 


.15 


8X 8 


3 


4 


260 


.22 


8X 8 


4 


5 


470 


.30 


10X10 


5 


6 


735 


.45 


12X12 


6 


8 


1050 


.59 


15X12 


8 


10 


2000 


1.00 


20X12 


10 


12 


3000 


1.52 


24X12 


12 


15 


4200 


2.00 


30X14 


15 


18 


7000 


3.50 


40X15 


15 


18 


7000 


3.50 


30X15 


18 


20 


10000 


4.50 


40X16 


18 


20 


10000 


4.50 


30X16 


20 


22 


12000 


5.40 


36X20 


22 


24 


13000 


5.50 


48X20 


24 


24 


15000 


6.50 


48X36 



CAPACITY OF SAND AND DREDGING CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 



No. 
Pump 
(Diam- 
eter Dis- 
charge 
Opening) 



Diam- 
eter 
Suction. 



Cubic Yards Material 

per Hour, 10 to 20 Per 

Cent of Solids. 



10 Per 
Cent. 

14 
30 
60 
90 

125 
210 
300 



15 Per 

Cent. 

21 
45 
90 
135 
190 
315 
450 



20 Per 
Cent. 



60 
120 
180 
250 
420 
600 



Horse- 
power Re- 
quired for 
each 10 
Feet Ele- 
vation. 

4 

8 
15 
25 
30 
50 
70 



Will 
Pass 
Solids: 
Diam- 
eter, 
Inches. 

2 

4* 



Diam- 
eter and 
Face of 
Pulley. 



12X12 
20X12 
24X14 
30X15 
36X20 
42X24 
48X30 



216 



HYDRAULICS 



217 



REVOLUTION TABLE 

at which Standard Pumps should Run to Raise Water to 
Different Heights. 



No. 


5 Ft. 


10 Ft. 


15 Ft. 


25 Ft. 


35 Ft. 


50 Ft. 


70 Ft. 


100 Ft, 


li 


428 


604 


739 


955 


1131 


1351 


1599 


1911 


If 


348 


491 


601 


777 


920 


1099 


1301 


1554 


2 


302 


426 


522 


674 


798 


953 


1128 


1348 


2i 


302 


426 


522 


674 


798 


953 


1128 


1348 


3 


302 


426 


522 


674 


798 


953 


1128 


1348 


4 


285 


402 


493 


637 


754 


901 


1066 


1274 


5 


256 


362 


443 


572 


678 


810 


958 


1145 


6 


214 


302 


368 


478 


566 


675 


800 


955 


8 


183 


259 


317 


409 


485 


579 


685 


819 


10 


168 


238 


291 


376 


445 


532 


629 


752 


12 


133 


188 


230 


298 


352 


421 


498 


595 


15 


105 


148 


181 


234 


277 


331 


391 


468 


15 


151 


213 


261 


337 


399 


477 


564 


674 


18 


105 


148 


181 


234 


277 


331 


391 


468 


18 


151 


213 


261 


337 


399 


477 


564 


674 


20 


142 


202 " 


245 


317 


376 


450 


532 


635 


24 


95 


134 


163 


212 


252 


300 


355 


424 



If water is to be forced through long pipes or through many elbows, 
speed must be increased to correspond. 

Weir-dam Measurement for Flow of Water in 
Streams. — Cut a notch in a board deep enough to pass 
all the water and about two-thirds the width of the stream, 




Fig. 63. 
as shown by Fig. 63. Bevel the edges of the notch, then 
secure it in the position shown in the above view. Drive a stake 



218 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



in the bottom of the stream about 4 or 5 feet from the board 
(shown as distance A in the view). The top of the stake must 
be exactly \evel with the bottom of the notch in the board. 
After the water has come to an even flow and reached its 
greatest depth, a careful measurement can be made of the depth 
of the water over the top of the stake. This measurement 
gives the true depth of water passing over notch. On the down- 
ward side, the water must have a drop of 10 to 15 inches after 
leaving the board to enable you to get the true flow. 

The nature of the channel above the board should be such 
that the water will not rush over the board, but should be wide 
and deep enough to allow it to flow over quietly. 

The Weir-dam table given below shows the number of cubic 
feet of water passing per minute over the notch for each inch 
in breadth. The figures in the first vertical column are the 
inches depth of water over the weir. The figures on first 
horizontal line show fractional parts «of inches depth. The 
table shows cubic feet that will pass per minute per inch of 
width of notch in board. 

Example. — Suppose the notch in the board is 20 inches wide 
and the water is 5| inches above top of stake. In the table 

TABLE FOR WEIR-DAM MEASUREMENT, 

Giving cubic feet of water per minute that will flow over a weir 1 inch 
wide and up to 25 inches deep. 



Inch. 




i 


\ 


t 


* 


* 


i 


i 


1 


.40 


.47 


.55 


.65 


.74 


.83 


.93 


1.03 


2 


1.14 


1.24 


1.36 


1.47 


1.59 


1.71 


1.83 


1.96 


3 


2.09 


2.23 


2.36 


2.50 


2.63 


2.78 


2.92 


3.07 


4 


3.22 


3.37 


3.52 


3.68 


3.83 


3.99 


4.16 


4.32 


5 


4.50 


4.67 


4.84 


5.01 


5.18 


5.36 


5.54 


5.72 


6 


5.90 


6.09 


6.28 


6.47 


6.65 


6.85 


7.05 


7.25 


7 


7.44 


7.64 


7.84 


8.05 


8.25 


8.45 


8.66 


8.86 


8 


9.10 


9.31 


9.52 


9.74 


9.96 


10.18 


10.40 


10.62 


9 


10.86 


11.08 


11.31 


11.54 


11.77 


12.00 


12.23 


12.47 


10 


12.71 


12.95 


13.19 


13.43 


13.67 


13.93 


14.16 


14.42 


11 


14.67 


14.92 


15.18 


15.43 


15.67 


15.96 


16.20 


16.46 


12 


16.73 


16.99 


17.26 


17.52 


17.78 


18.05 


18.32 


18.58 


13 


18.87 


19.14 


19.42 


19.69 


19.97 


20.24 


20.52 


20.80 


14 


21.09 


21.37 


21.65 


21.94 


22.22 


22.51 


22.79 


23.08 


15 


23.38 


23.67 


23.97 


24.26 


24.56 


24.86 


25.16 


25.46 


16 


25.76 


26.06 


26.36 


26.66 


26.97 


27.27 


27.58 


27.89 


17 


28.20 


28.51 


28.82 


29.14 


29.45 


29.76 


30.08 


30.39 


18 


30.70 


31.02 


31.34 


31.66 


31.98 


32.31 


32.63 


32.96 


19 


33.29 


33.61 


33.94 


34.27 


34.60 


34.94 


35.27 


35.60 


20 


35.94 


36.27 


36.60 


36.94 


37.28 


37.62 


37.96 


38.31 


21 


38.65 


39.00 


39.34 


39.69 


40.04 


40.39 


40.73 


41.09 


22 


41.43 


41.78 


42.13 


42.49 


42.84 


43.20 


43.56 


43.92 


23 


44.28 


44.64 


45.00 


45.38 


45.71 


46.08 


46.43 


46.81 


24 


47.18 


47.55 


47.91 


48.28 


48.65 


49.02 


49.39 


49.76 



HYDRAULICS 



219 



5| inches show that 5.18 cubic feet flow over 1 inch of width. 
Multiply this by 20 (width of notch), and you will have 103.6, 
which represents the cubic feet of water passing oyer the weir, 
or amount in the stream. This multiplied by 1\ will give 
the gallons. 

A "miners' inch" of water is approximately equal to a supply 
of 12 United States gallons per minute. 

Measurements of Large Streams. — Where measure- 
ment by weir is impracticable, the amount of water can be cal- 
culated by ascertaining the average velocity of the current 
and the cross-section of the stream. 

Select a place in the stream where there is a moderate cur- 
rent, or smooth, even flow of water, and measure the depth 
of the water at from 6 to 12 points across the stream at equal 




Fig. 64. 



distances between. Add all the depths in feet together, and 
divide by the number of measurements made; this will be 
the average depth of the stream, which, multiplied by its width, 
will give its area or cross-section. Multiply this by the velocity 
of the stream in feet per minute, and the result will be the 
discharge in cubic feet per minute of the stream. 

Miners' Inch Measurement. — The miners' inch is 
another method of measuring flow of water, and is commonly 



220 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



used by the hydraulic companies in the western part of the 
United States. 

The standard opening is 50 inches long by 2 inches wide in 
a 1^-inch board, top of said opening being 6 inches from level 
of water in stream, as shown by Fig. 64. This is equivalent 
to 100 miners' inches, and will discharge 157 cubic feet per 
minute, commonly taken as 150 cubic feet. 

If there is not 150 cubic feet in the stream, it will be necessary 
to close part of the longitudinal 2-inch opening, so that the 
water will stand 6 inches above the upper edge of the slot at 
all times. The length of the opening multiplied by two gives 
the number of miners' inches. 







PRESSURE OF WATER. 








P ressure 




Pressure 




Pressure 




Pressure 


Head 


in Pounds 


Head 


in Pounds 


Head 


in Pounds 


Head 


in Pounds 


in 


per 


in 


per 


in 


per 


in 


per 


Feet. 


Square 


Feet. 


Square 


Feet. 


Square 


Feet. 


Square 




Inch. 




Inch. 




Inch. 




Iuch 


1 


0.43 


34 


14.74 


67 


29.05 


100 


43.35 


2 


0.87 


35 


15.17 


68 


29.48 


101 


43.78 


3 


1.30 


36 


15.61 


69 


29.91 


102 


44.22 


4 


1.73 


37 


16.04 


70 


30.35 


103 


44.65 


5 


2.17 


38 


16.47 


71 


30.78 


104 


45.08 


6 


2.60 


39 


16.91 


72 


31.21 


105 


45.52 


7 


3.03 


40 


17.34 


73 


31.65 


106 


45.95 


8 


3.47 


41 


17.77 


74 


32.08 


107 


46.39 


9 


3.90 


42 


18.21 


75 


32.51 


108 


46.82 


10 


4.34 


43 


18.64 


76 


32.95 


109 


47.25 


11 


4.77 


44 


19.07 


77 


33.38 


110 


47.69 


12 


5.20 


45 


19.51 


78 


33.81 


111 


48.12 


13 


5.64 


46 


19.94 


79 


34.25 


112 


48.55 


14 


6.07 


47 


20.37 


80 


34.68 


113 


48 99 


15 


6.50 


48 


20.81 


81 


35.11 


114 


49.42 


16 


6.94 


49 


21.24 


82 


35.55 


115 


49.85 


17 


7.37 


50 


21.68 


83 


35.98 


116 


50.29 


18 


7.80 


51 


22.11 


84 


36.41 


117 


50.72 


19 


8.24 


52 


22.54 


85 


36.85 


118 


51.15 


20 


8.67 


53 


22.98 


86 


37.28 


119 


51.59 


21 


9.10 


54 


23.41 


87 


37.72 


! 120 


52.02 


22 


9.54 


55 


23.84 


88 


38.15 


121 


52.45 


23 


9.97 


56 


24.28 


89 


38.58 


122 


52.89 


24 


10.40 


57 


24.71 


90 


39.02 


123 


53.32 


25 


10.84 


58 


25.14 


91 


39.45 


124 


53.75 


26 


11.27 


59 


25.58 


92 


39.88 


125 


54.19 


27 


11.70 


60 


26.01 


93 


40.32 


126 


54.62 


28 


12.14 


61 


26.44 


94 


40.75 


127 


55.06 


29 


12.57 


62 


26.88 


95 


41.18 


128 


55.49 


30 


13.01 


63 


27.31 


96 


41.62 


] 129 


55.92 


31 


13.44 


64 


27.74 


97 


42.05 


130 


56.36 


32 


13.87 


65 


28.18 


98 


42.48 


| 131 


56.79 


33 


14.31 


66 


28.61 


99 


42.92 


132 


57.22 



HYDRAULICS 



221 





PRESSURE OF WATER- 


-{Continued). 




Head 


Pressure 
in Pounds 


Head 


Pressure 
in Pounds 


Head 


Pressure 
in Pounds 


Head 


Pressure 
in Pounds 


in 
Feet. 


per Sq. 
Inch. 


in 
Feet. 


per Sq. 
Inch. 


m 
Feet. 


per Sq. 
Inch. 


in 

Feet. 


per Sq. 
Inch. 


133 


57.66 


175 


75.86 


217 


94.06 


259 


112.27 


134 


58.09 


176 


76.30 


218 


94.50 


260 


112.71 


135 


58.52 


177 


76.73 


219 


94.93 


261 


113.14 


136 


58.96 


178 


77.16 
77.60 


220 


95.37 


262 


113.57 


137 


59.39 


179 


221 


95.80 


263 


114.01 


138 


59.82 


180 


78.03 


222 


96.23 


264 


114.44 


139 


60.26 


181 


78.46 


223 


96.67 


265 


114.87 


140 


60.69 


182 


78.90 


224 


97.10 


266 


115.31 


141 


61.12 


183 


79.33 


225 


97.53 


267 


115.74 


142 


61.56 


184 


79.77 


226 


97.97 


268 


116.17 


143 


62.00 


185 


80.20 


227 


98.40 


269 


116.61 


144 


62.43 


186 


80.63 


228 


98.83 


270 


117.04 


145 


62.86 


187 


81.07 


229 


99.27 


271 


117.47 


146 


63.29 


188 


81.50 


230 


99.70 


272 


117.91 


147 


63.73 


189 


81.93 


231 


100.13 


273 


118.34 


148 


64.16 


190 


82.37 


232 


100.56 


274 


118.77 


149 


64.59 


191 


82.80 


233 


101.00 


275 


119 21 


150 


65.03 


192 


83.23 


234 


101.43 


276 


119.64 


151 


65.46 


193 


83.67 


235 


101.86 


277 


120.07 


152 


65.89 


194 


84.10 


236 


102.30 


278 


120.51 


153 


66.33 


195 


84.53 


237 


102.73 


279 


120.94 


154 


66.76 


196 


84.97 


238 


103.16 


280 


121.38 


155 


67.19 


197 


85.40 


239 


103.60 


281 


121.81 


156 


67.63 


198 


85.83 


240 


104.03 


282 


122.24 


157 


68.06 


199 


86 27 


241 


104.46 


283 


122.68 


158 


68.49 


200 


86.70 


242 


104.90 


284 


123.11 


159 


68.93 


201 


87.13 


243 


105.33 


285 


123.54 


160 


69.36 


202 


87.56 


244 


105.76 


286 


123.98 


161 


69.79 


203 


88.00 


245 


106.20 


287 


124.41 


162 


70.23 


204 


88.43 


246 


106.63 


288 


124.84 


163 


70.66 


205 


88.85 


247 


107.06 


289 


125.28 


164 


71.10 


206 


89.30 


248 


107.50 


290 


125.71 


165 


71.53 


207 


89.73 


249 


107.93 


291 


126.14 


166 


71.96 


208 


90.15 


250 


108.37 


292 


126.58 


167 


72.40 


209 


90.60 


251 


108.80 


293 


127.01 


168 


72.83 


210 


91.03 


252 


109.23 


294 


127.44 


169 


73.26 


211 


91.46 


253 


109.67 


295 


127.88 


170 


73.70 


212 


91.90 


254 


110.10 


296 


128.31 


171 


74.13 


213 


92.33 


255 


110.53 


297 


128.74 


172 


74.56 


214 


92.76 


256 


110.97 


298 


129.18 


173 


75.00 


215 


93.20 


257 


111.40 


299 


129.61 


174 


75.43 


216 


93.63 


258 


111.83 


300 


130.05 



222 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



VELOCITY OP WATER. 

Table giving velocity of water in feet per second, and the cubic feet of 
water per minute, to develop one horse-power at 80 per cent duty under 
heads from 1 to 108 feet. 



Head 


Veloc- 
ity. 


Cubic 

Feet. 


Head 


Veloc- 
ity. 


Cubic 
Feet. 


Head 


Veloc- 
ity. 


Cubic 
Feet. 


1 
2 
3 

4 
5 


8.02 
11.34 
13.89 
16.04 
17.92 


661 . 765 
330.883 
220.589 
165.441 
132.353 


37 
38 
39 

40 
41 


48.78 
49.44 
50.09 
50.72 
51.35 


17.886 
17.415 
16.968 
16.544 
16.141 


73 

74 
75 
76 

77 


68.53 
69.00 
69.46 
69.92 
70.38 


9.065 
8.943 
8.822 
8.707 
8.594 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 


19.65 
21.22 
22.68 
24.06 
25.36 


110.294 
94.538 
82.720 
73.529 
66.177 


42 
43 
44 
45 
46 


54.98 
52.59 
53.20 
53.80 
54.40 


15.756 
15.390 
15.040 
14.706 
14.368 


78 
79 
80 
81 

82 


70.84 
71.29 
71.74 
72.19 
72.63 


8.484 
8.377 
8.272 
8.170 
8.070 


11 
12 
13 

14 
15 


26.60 
27.78 
28.92 
30.01 
31.06 


60.160 
55.147 
50.905 
47.269 
44.118 


47 
48 
49 
50 
51 


54.99 
55.57 
56.14 
56.71 
57.27 


14.080 
13.787 
13.505 
13 . 236 
12.976 


83 
84 
85 
86 

87 


73.07 
73.51 
73.95 
74.38 
74.81 


7.973 

7.878 
7.785 
7.695 
7.606 


16 
17 
18 
19 
20 


32.08 
33.07 
34.03 
34.96 
35.87 


41 . 360 
38.927 
36.765 
34.830 
33 . 088 


52 
53 
54 
55 
56 


57.84 
58.39 
58.93 
59.48 
60.01 


12.726 
12.486 
12.255 
12.032 
11.817 


88 
89 
90 
91 
92 


75.24 
75.67 
76.09 
76.51 
76.93 


7.520 
7.436 
7.353 
7.272 
7.193 


21 
22 
23 
24 
25 


36.75 
37.61 
38.46 
39.29 
40.10 


31.513 
30.080 

28.772 
27.574 
26.471 


57 
58 
59 
60 
61 


60.56 
61.08 
61.61 
62.12 
62.71 


11.610 
11.410 
11.216 
11.029 
10.849 


93 
94 
95 

96 
97 


77.35 

77.76 
78.18 
78.59 
79.00 


7.116 
7.040 
6.966 
6.893 
6.822 


26 
27 
28 
29 
30 


40.89 
41.67 
42.44 
43.19 
43.93 


25.453 
24.510 
■ 23.634 
22.819 
22 . 059 


62 
63 
64 
65 

66 


63.15 
63.66 
64.16 
64.66 
65.16 


10.674 
10.504 
10.340 
10.181 
10.027 


98 

99 

100 

101 

102 


79.40 
79.81 
80.22 
80.61 
81.01 


6.753 

6.685 
6.618 
6.552 
6.487 


31 
32 
33 
34 
35 


44.65 
45.37 
46.07 
46.77 

47.45 


21 . 347 
20.680 
20 . 053 
19 . 464 
18.908 


67 
68 
69 
70 
71 


65.65 
66.14 
66.62 
67.11 
67.58 


9.877 
9.732 
9.591 
9.454 
9.321 


103 

104 
105 
106 
107 


81.40 
81.80 
82.19 

82.58 
82.97 


6.425 
6.363 
6.303 
6.243 
6.185 


36 


48.12 


18.382 


72 


68.06 


9.191 


108 


83.35 


6.127 



HYDRAULICS 



223 



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•1935 
UI pi39JJ 

aXx^oaua 



HYDRAULICS 



229 



FIRE STREAMS. 

Pressures required at nozzle and at pump, with quantity and pressure of 
water necessary to throw water various distances through different-sized 
nozzles — using 2^-inch rubber hose and smooth nozzles. — G. A. Ellis, C.E. 



Size of Nozzles. 


1 Inch. 


li Inch. 


Pressure at nozzle 

* Pressure at pump or 

hydrant with 100 ft. 

2^-inch rubber hose. 

Gallons per minute 

Horizontal distance 


40 

48 
155 

109 
79 


60 

73 
189 

142 
108 


80 

97 
219 

168 
131 


100 

121 
245 

186 
148 


40 

54 
196 

113 
81 


60 

81 
240 

148 
112 


80 

108 
277 

175 

137 


100 

135 
310 

193 


Vertical dist. thrown . . . 


157 


Size of Nozzles. 


li Inch. 


If Inch. 


Pressure at nozzle 

* Pressure at pump or 

hydrant with 100 ft. 

2^-inch rubber hose. 
Gallons per minute... . . . 

Horizontal distance 


40 

61 
242 

118 

82 


60 

92 
297 

156 
115 


80 

123 
342 

186 
142 


100 

154 
383 

207 
164 


40 

71 
293 

124 

85 


60 

107 
358 

166 
118 


80 

144 
413 

200 
146 


100 

180 

462 

224 


Vertical dist. thrown. . . 


169 



* For greater lengths of 2$ hose the increased friction can readily be 
obtained by noting the differences between the above given "pressure at 
nozzle'' and "pressure at pump or hydrant with 100 feet of hose." For 
instance, if it requires at hydrant or pump 8 lbs. more pressure than it does 
at nozzle to overcome the friction when pumping through 100 feet of 21-inch 
hose (using 1-inch nozzle, with 40 lbs. pressure at said nozzle), then it 
requires 16 lbs. pressure to overcome the friction in forcing through 200 
feet of same size hose. 

Compressibility op Water (Kent). — Water is very slightly 
compressible; its compressibility is from .000040 to .000051 for 
one atmosphere, decreasing with increase of temperature. For 
each foot of pressure distilled water will be diminished in volume 
.0000015 to .0000013. Water is so incompressible that even at a 
depth of a mile a cubic foot of water will weigh only about half a 
pound more than at the surface. 



230 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLE SHOWING FLOW OF WATER PER SECOND THROUGH 
CLEAN IRON PIPES. 



Fall in 

Feet per 

100 


Diameters. 


Feet 

of 

Pipe. 


1 In. 
Cu. Ft. 


2 In. 

Cu. Ft. 


3 In. 

Cu. Ft. 


4 In. 

Cu. Ft. 


6 In. 

Cu. Ft. 


8 In. 
Cu. Ft. 


10 In. 
Cu. Ft. 


11 In. 

Cu. Ft. 


12 In. 
Cu. Ft. 


.10 


















1.265 


.12 














.878 
.960 
1.047 
1.110 
1.194 
1.265 
1.325 
1.377 
1.423 
1.470 
1.587 
1.683 
1.865 
2.059 
2.222 
2.383 
2.514 
2.662 
2.932 
3.210 
3.450 
3.679 
3.856 
4.762 
5.563 
6.704 


1.120 
1.221 
1.320 
1.394 
1.490 
1.580 
1.653 
1.722 
1.788 
1.854 
1.996 
2.136 
2.397 
2.636 
2.858 
3.062 
3.232 
3.419 
3.760 
4.016 
4.390 
4.679 
5.251 
6.086 
7.022 
8.244 


1.402 


.14 














1.489 


.16 












.573 

.611 

.639 

.659 

.703 

.737 

.768 

.808 

.876 

.931 

1.045 

1.575 

1.262 

1.344 

1.424 

1.496 

1.644 

1.782 

1.916 

2.033 

2.155 

3.145 
3.513 
3.847 
4.196 


1.634 


.18 












1.728 


.20 










.298 
.314 
.330 
.346 
.359 
.377 
.395 
.444 
.496 
.548 
.589 
.631 
.672 
.721 
.784 
.858 
.922 
.975 
1.022 

1.484 
1.665 
1.929 

2.144 
2.274 
2.399 


1.846 


.22 










1.940 


.24 










2.026 


.26 








.1235 
.1298 
.1335 
.1465 
.1562 
.1771 
.1923 
.2146 
.2339 
.2460 
.2582 
.2893 
.3036 
.3237 
.3412 

.4503 
.5331 
.5954 
.6390 

.7506 

.9270 
1 . 0060 
1.0810 


2.117 


.28 








2.207 


.30 






.0630 
.0692 
.0749 
.0839 
.0915 
.0992 
.1060 
.1119 
.1190 
.1313 
.1413 
. IbOV 
.1590 

.2081 
.2469 
. 3785 
.3049 

.3816 

.4440 
.4977 
.5131 

. 5832 
.6523 


2.297 


.35 






2.466 


.40 




. 02584 


2.662 


.50 




.02924 


3.020 


.60 




.03274 


3.310 


.70 




. 03492 


3.601 


.80 
.90 
1.00 
1.20 
1.40 
1.60 
1.80 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 


.00567 
.00617 
. 00677 
.00781 
.00841 
.00886 
.00961 
.00990 
.01245 
.01492 
.01666 
.01857 
. 01988 
.02141 
.02283 
. 02424 
.02676 
.02890 
.03081 
.03276 
.03458 
.03897 
.04316 
.04987 
.05648 
.06320 
.06943 


. 03776 

.04081 

.04321 

. 04843 

.05150 

.05456 

.05740 

.06111 

.07399 

. 08734 

.1095 

.1200 

.1288 

.1375 

.1442 

.1523 

.1634 

.1748 

.1855 

.1955 

.2047 

.2276 

.2483 

.2833 


3.856 
4.072 
4.305 
4.728 
5.094 
5.482 
5.839 
6.160 
7.630 
8.860 
9.967 


7.00 








8.00 








9.00 










10.00 










12.00 










14.00 












15.98 












18.00 












20.00 














25 00 














30.00 














40 00 
















50.00 
















60 00 


















70.00 





































To find the velocity in feet per second necessary to carry a given quan- 
tity of water in a pipe of given diameter, divide the quantity in cubic feet 
per second by the area of the pipe in square feet; the quotient will give 
the velocity. 



HYDRAULICS 



231 



TABLE SHOWING FLOW OF WATER PER SECOND THROUGH 
CLEAN IRON PIPES. 





Diameter. 




Fall in 






Feet per 
100 Feet 
of Pipe. 


14 
In. 
Cu. 

Ft. 


15 
In. 
Cu. 
Ft. 


16 

In. 
Cu. 
Ft. 


18 
In. 
Cu. 
Ft. 


20 
In. 

Cu. 
Ft. 


22 

In. 
Cu. 
Ft. 


24 
In. 
Cu. 
Ft. 


26 
In. 
Cu. 

Ft. 


30 
In. 
Cu. 

Ft. 


36 
In. 
Cu. 

Ft. 


40 
In. 

Cu. 
Ft. 


48 
In. 
Cu. 
Ft. 


.02 
03 




















10.29 
12.70 
14.56 
16.35 
18.02 


13.88 
17.00 
19.68 
22.08 
24.43 


22 98 


















7.78 
8.99 
10.24 
10.97 


27 J9 


04 


















32 93 


05 
















7.48 
7.61 


37.00 


.06 


.... 










3.61 


4.61 


6.10 


40.21 


.07 
.08 
.09 
.10 
.11 


Hi 

1.83 
1.91 
2.02 


'2.05 
2.19 
2.30 
2.43 


2.25 
2.43 
2.59 

2.72 
2.88 


3.10 
3.27 
3.49 
3.66 

3.88 


4.07 
4.35 
4.68 
4.92 
5.15 


5.25 
5.62 
6.01 
6.32 
6.62 


6.64 
7.13 
7.56 
7.95 
8.34 


8.27 
8.70 
9.36 
9.81 
10.44 


11.90 
12.84 
13.48 
14.21 
15.05 


19.76 
20.85 
22.30 
23.47 
24.91 


26.27 
28.14 
29.80 
31.46 
33.25 


43.67 
46.81 
49.06 
52.15 
54.95 


.12 
.13 
.14 
.15 
.16 


2.11 

2.18 
2.27 
2.35 
2.44 


2.54 
2.65 
2.75 
2.84 
2.94 


3.02 
3.18 
3.28 
3.39 
3.49 


4.06 
4.23 
4.40 
4.61 
4.75 


5.40 
5.62 
5.82 
6.05 
6.27 


6.94 
7.24 
7.51 

7.78 
8.03 


8.75 
9.14 
9.47 
9.80 
10.13 


10.87 
11.41 
11.80 
12.26 
12.70 


15.81 
16.47 
17.18 
17.94 

18.58 


26.12 
27.20 
28.24 
29.19 
30.29 


34.68 
36.21 
37.57 
39.18 
40.54 


57.36 
60.07 
62.02 
64.47 
66.53 


.17 
.18 
.19 
.20 
.22 


2.54 
2.59 
2.67 
2.72 

2.88 


2.98 
3.11 
3.21 
3.29 
3.47 


3.69 
3.92 


5.03 
5.30 


6.65 
7.05 


8.55 
9.07 


10.77 
11.43 


13.46 
14.23 


19.66 
20.32 
20.79 
21.80 


31.42 

32.48 
33.40 
34.49 
36.15 


41.88 
43.07 
44.28 
45.20 
48.12 


68.50 
70.62 
72.75 
74.44 
78.29 


.24 
.26 
.28 
.30 
.35 


3.02 
3.15 
3.29 
3.42 
3.62 


3.63 
3.79 
3.95 
4.11 

4.46 


4.51 

4.68 
4.87 
5.31 


6.18 
6.38 
6.64 
7.17 


8.14 
8.48 
8.77 
9.49 


10.48 
10.91 
11.29 
12.25 


13.23 
13.79 
14.25 
15.50 


15.69 
16.42 
17.07 
17.75 
19.25 


22.83 
23.93 

24.86 
25.87 
27.96 


37.74 
39.40 
40.86 
42.28 
45.95 


50.48 
52.67 
55.04 
56.33 
61.09 


81.68 
85.20 
88.46 
91.73 
100.40 


.40 
.50 
.60 
.70 
.80 


3.99 
4.46 
4.91 
5.37 
5.77 


4.78 
5.37 
5.91 
6.45 
6.90 


5.67 
6.39 
7.02 
7.66 
8.16 


7.65 

8.66 

9.54 

10.33 

11.09 


10.16 
11.43 
12.59 
13.66 
14.66 


13.12 
14.78 
16.20 
17.53 

18.78 


16.62 
18.71 
20.42 
22.05 
23.61 


20.62 
23.13 
25.30 
27.12 
29.20 


29.84 
33.55 
36.79 
39.66 
42.39 


48.83 
54.89 
59.95 
65.17 
69.80 


65.41 
73.09 
80.32 
86.70 
92.58 


105.89 
119.34 
130.88 
148.09 
153.49 


.90 
1.00 
1.20 
1.40 
1.60 


6.11 

6.44 
7.00 
7.60 
8.17 


7.31 
7.70 
8.39 
9.15 
9.81 


8.64 
9.10 
9.95 
10.87 
11.63 


11.71 
12.37 
13.65 
14.75 
15.84 


15.54 
16.47 
17.99 
19.49 
21.03 


19.93 
21.06 
23.07 

24.68 
26.97 


25.07 31.00 
26.42 32.73 
29.03 36.18 
31.49 39.31 
33.90 42.35 


45.23 
47.71 
52.91 
57.65 


74.33 

78.46 

82.84 


98.00 
103.99 
















1.80 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 


8.93 

9.26 

11.39 

13.22 


10.47 
11.09 
13.66 
15.84 


12.43 
13.14 
16.17 

18.77 


16.90 
17.85 
21.86 


22.45 
23.56 
28.86 


29.70 
31.15 


36.18 
38.45 


44.10 












































To find the area of a required pipe, the quantity and velocity being given, 
divide the quantity in a stated time by the velocity in the same period ; the 
quotient will be the required area, from which the diameter may readily be 
calculated. 



232 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LOSS OF HEAD BY FRICTION. 

The following tables give the friction head in pipe 1 to 12 inches diam- 
eter, per 100 feet length, with velocities from 2 to 7 feet per second. 







Inside Diameter of Pipe in 


Inches. 






Veloc- 


1 


2 


3 


4 


















ity in 
Feet 
per 
Sec. 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


in 


per 


in 


per 


m 


per 


in 


per 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


2.0 


2.37 


.65 


1.185 


2.62 


.791 


5.89 


.593 


10.4 


2.2 


2.80 


.73 


1.404 


2.88 


.936 


6.48 


.702 


11.5 


2.4 


3.27 


.79 


1.639 


3.14 


1.093 


7.07 


.819 


12.5 


2.6 


3.78 


.86 


1.891 


3.40 


1.26 


7.65 


.945 


13.6 


2.8 


4.32 


.92 


2.16 


3.66 


1.44 


8.24 


1.08 


14.6 


3.0 


4.89 


.99 


2.44 


3.92 


1.62 


8.83 


1.22 


15.7 


3.2 


5.47 


1.06 


2.73 


4.18 


1.82 


9.42 


1.37 


16.7 


3.4 


6.09 


1.12 


3.05 


4.45 


2.04 


10.00 


1.52 


17.8 


3.6 


6.76 


1.19 


3.38 


4.71 


2.26 


10.60 


1.69 


18.8 


3.8 


7.48 


1.26 


3.74 


4.97 


2.49 


11.20 


1.87 


19.9 


4.0 


8.20 


1.32 


4.10 


5.23 


2.73 


11.80 


2.05 


20.9 


4.2 


8.97 


1.39 


4.49 


5.49 


2.98 


12.30 


2.24 


22.0 


4.4 


9.77 


1.45 


4.89 


5.76 


3.25 


12.90 


2.43 


23.0 


4.6 


10.60 


1.52 


5.30 


6.02 


3.53 


13.50 


2.64 


24.0 


4.8 


11.45 


1.58 


5.72 


6.28 


3.81 


14.10 


2.85 


25.1 


5.0 


12.33 


1.65 


6.17 


6.54 


4.11 


14.70 


3.08 


26.2 


5.2 


13.24 


1.72 


6.62 


6.80 


4.41 


15.30 


3.31 


27.2 


5.4 


14.20 


1.78 


7.10 


7.06 


4.73 


15.90 


3.55 


28.2 


5.6 


15.16 


1.85 


7.58 


7.32 


5.06 


16.50 


3.79 


29.3 


5.8 


16.17 


1.91 


8.09 


7.58 


5.40 


17.10 


4.04 


30.3 


6.0 


17.23 


1.98 


8.61 


7.85 


5.74 


17.70 


4.31 


31.4 


7.0 


22.89 


2.31 


11.45 


9.16 


7.62 


20.60 


5.72 


36.6 







Inside Diameter of Pipe in 


Inches. 






Veloc- 


5 


6 


7 


8 


















ity in 
Feet 
per 
Sec. 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


in 


per 


in 


per 


in 


per 


m 


per 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


2.0 


.474 


16.3 


.395 


23.5 


.338 


32.0 


.96 


41.9 


2.2 


.561 


18.0 


.468 


25.9 


.401 


35.3 


.351 


46.1 


2.4 


.650 


19.6 


.547 


28.2 


.468 


38.5 


.410 


50.2 


2.6 


.757 


21.3 


.631 


30.6 


.540 


41.7 


.473 


54.4 


2.8 


.864 


22.9 


.720 


32.9 


.617 


44.9 


.540 


58.6 


3.0 


.978 


24.5 


.815 


35.3 


.698 


48.1 


.611 


62.8 


3.2 


1.098 


26.2 


.915 


37.7 


.785 


51.3 


.686 


67.0 


3.4 


1.22 


27.8 


1.021 


40.0 


.875 


54.5 


.765 


71.2 


3.6 


1.35 


29.4 


1.131 


42.4 


.969 


57.7 


.848 


75.4 


3.8 


1.49 


31.0 


1.25 


44.7 


1.070 


60.9 


.936 


79.6 


4.0 


1.64 


32.7 


1.37 


47.1 


1.175 


64.1 


1.027 


83.7 


4.2 


1.79 


34.3 


1.49 


49.5 


1.28 


67.3 


1.122 


87.9 


4.4 


1.95 


36.0 


1.62 


51.8 


1.39 


70.5 


1.22 


92.1 


4.6 


2.11 


37.6 


1.76, 


54.1 


1.51 


73.7 


1.32 


96.3 


4.8 


2.27 


39.2 


1.90 


56.5 


1.63 


76.9 


1.43 


100.0 


5.0 


2.46 


40.9 


2.05 


58.9 


1.76 


80.2 


1.54 


105.0 


5.2 


2.65 


42.5 


2.21 


61.2 


1.89 


83.3 


1.65 


109.0 


5.4 


2.84 


44.2 


2.37 


63.6 


2.03 


86.6 


1.77 


113.0 


5.6 


3.03 


45.8 


2.53 


65.9 


2.17 


89.8 


1.89 


117.0 


5.8 


3.24 


47.4 


2.70 


68.3 


2.31 


93.0 


2.01 


121.0 


6.0 


3.45 


49.1 


2.87 


70.7 


2.46 


96.2 


2.15 


125.0 


7.0 


4.57 


57.2 


3.81 


82.4 


3.26 


112.0 


2.85 


146.0 



HYDRAULICS 



233 



LOSS OF HEAD BY FRICTION— (Continued). 
Inside Diametek of Pipe in Inches. 



Veloc- 
ity in 
Feet 
per 
Sec. 


9 


10 


11 


13 


Loss of 
Head 

in 
Feet. 


Cubic 
Feet 
per 
Min. 


Loss of 
Head 

in 
Feet. 


Cubic 
Feet 
per 
Min. 


Loss of 
Head 

in 
Feet. 


Cubic 
Feet 
per 
Min. 


Loss of 
Head 

in 
Feet. 


Cubic 
Feet 
per 
Min. 


2.0 
2.2 
2.4 
2.6 
2.8 
3.0 
3.2 
3.4 
3.6 
3.8 
4.0 
4.2 
4.4 
4.6 
4.8 
5.0 
5.2 
5.4 
5.6 
5.8 
6.0 
7.0 


.264 
.312 
.365 
.420 
.480 
.544 
.609 
.680 
.755 
.831 
.913 
.998 
1.086 
1.177 
1.27 
1.37 
1.47 
1.57 
1.68 
1.80 
1.92 
2.52 


53 

58.3 
63.6 
68.9 
74.2 
79.5 
84.8 
90.1 
95.4 

101 

106 

111 

116 

122 

127 

132 

138 

143 

148 

154 

159 

185 


.237 
.281 
.327 
.378 
.432 
.488 
.549 
.612 
:679 
.749 
.822 
.897 
.977 
1.059 
1.145 
1.23 
1.32 
1.41 
1.51 
1.61 
1.71 
2.28 


65.4 

72 

78.5 

85.1 

91.6 

98.2 

105 

111 

118 

124 

131 

137 

144 

150 

157 

163 

170 

177 

183 

190 

196 

229 


.216 
.255 
.297 
.344 
.392 
.444 
.499 
.557 
.617 
.680 
.747 
.816 
.888 
.963 
1.040 
1.122 
1.20 
1.28 
1.37 
1.46 
1.56 
2.07 


79.2 

87.1 
95.0 

103 

111 

119 

127 

134 

142 

150 

158 

166 

174 

182 

190 

198 

206 

214 

222 

229 

237 

277 


.198 

.234 

.273 

.315 

.360 

.407 

.457 

.510 

.566 

.624 

.685 

.749 

.815 

.883 

.954 

1.028 

1.104 

1.183 

1.26 

1.34 

1.43 

1.91 


94 
103 
113 
122 
132 
141 
151 
160 
169 
179 
188 
198 
207 
217 
226 
235 
245 
254 
264 
273 
283 
330 



The following tables give the friction head in pipe 13 to 36 inches' diam- 
eter, per 100 feet length with velocities of water from 2 to 7 feet per second. 







Inside 


Diameter of Pipe in 


'nches. 






Veloc- 


13 


14 


15 


16 


















ity in 
Feet 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Sec. 


in 


per 


in 


per 


m 


per 


in 


per 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


2.0 


.183 


110 


.169 


128 


.158 


147 


.147 


167 


2.2 


.216 


121 


.200 


141 


.187 


162 


.175 


184 


2.4 


.252 


133 


.234 


154 


.218 


176 


.205 


201 


2.6 


.290 


144 


.270 


167 


.252 


191 


.236 


218 


2.8 


.332 


156 


.308 


179 


.288 


206 


.270 


234 


3.0 


.375 


166 


.349 


192 


.325 


221 


.306 


251 


3.2 


.422 


177 


.392 


205 


.366 


235 


.343 


268 


3.4 


.471 


188 


.438 


218 


.408 


250 


.383 


284 


3.6 


.522 


199 


.485 


231 


.452 


265 


.425 


301 


3.8 


.576 


210 


.535 


243 


.499 


280 


.468 


318 


4.0 


.632 


221 


.587 


256 


.548 


294 


.513 


335 


4.2 


.691 


232 


.641 


269 


.598 


309 


.561 


352 


4.4 


.751 


243 


.698 


282 


.651 


324 


.611 


368 


4.6 


.815 


254 


.757 


295 


.707 


339 


.662 


385 


4.8 


.881 


265 


.818 


308 


.763 


353 


.715 


402 


5.0 


.949 


276 


.881 


321 


.822 


368 


.770 


419 


5.2 


1.020 


287 


.947 


333 


.883 


383 


.828 


435 


5.4 


1.092 


298 


1.014 


346 


.947 


397 


.888 


452 


5.6 


1.167 


309 


1.083 


359 


1.011 


412 


.949 


469 


5.8 


1.245 


321 


1.155 


372 


1.078 


427 


1.011 


486 


6.0 


1.325 


332 


1.229 


385 


1.148 


442 


1.076 


502 


7.0 


1.75 


387 


1.630 


449 


1.520 


515 


1.430 


586 



234 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 





LOSS OF 


HEAD BY FRICTION- 


—(Continued). 








Inside 


Diameter of Pipe in 


Inches. 






Veloc- 


18 


30 


23 


24 


















ity in 
Feet 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Sec. 


in 


per 


in 


per 


in 


per 


in 


per 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


2.0 


.132 


212 


.119 


262 


.108 


316 


.098 


377 


2.2 


.156 


233 


.140 


288 


.127 


348 


.116 


414 


2.4 


.182 


254 


.164 


314 


.149 


380 


.136 


452 


2.6 


.210 


275 


.189 


340 


.171 


412 


.157 


490 


2.8 


.240 


297 


.216 


366 


.195 


443 


.180 


528 


3.0 


.271 


318 


.245 


393 


.222 


475 


.204 


565 


3.2 


.305 


339 


.275 


419 


.249 


507 


.229 


603 


3.4 


.339 


360 


.306 


445 


.278 


538 


.255 


641 


3.6 


.377 


382 


.339 


471 


.308 


570 


.283 


678 


3.8 


.416 


403 


.374 


497 


.340 


601 


.312 


716 


4.0 


.456 


424 


.410 


523 


.373 


633 


.342 


754 


4.2 


.499 


445 


.449 


550 


.408 


665 


.374 


791 


4.4 


.542 


466 


.488 


576 


.444 


697 


.407 


829 


4.6 


.588 


488 


.529 


602 


.482 


728 


.441 


867 


4.8 


.636 


509 


.572 


628 


.521 


760 


.476 


905 


5.0 


.685 


530 


.617 


654 


.561 


792 


.513 


942 


5.2 


.736 


551 


.662 


680 


.602 


823 


.552 


980 


5.4 


.788 


572 


.710 


707 


.645 


855 


.591 


1018 


5.6 


.843 


594 


.758 


733 


.690 


887 


.632 


1055 


5.8 


.899 


615 


.809 


759 


.735 


918 


.674 


1093 


6.0 


.957 


636 


.861 


785 


.782 


950 


.717 


1131 


7.0 


1.270 


742 


1.143 


916 


1.040 


1109 


.953 


1319 







Inside 


Diameter of Pipe in 


Inches. 






Veloc- 


26 


28 


30 


36 


















ity in 
Feet 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Loss of 


Cubic 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Head 


Feet 


Sec. 


in 


per 


in 


per 


in 


per 


in 


per 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


Feet. 


Min. 


2.0 


.091 


442 


.084 


513 


.079 


589 


.066 


848 


2.2 


.108 


486 


.099 


564 


.093 


648 


.078 


933 


2.4 


.126 


531 


.116 


616 


.109 


707 


.091 


1018 


2.6 


.145 


575 


.134 


667 


.126 


766 


.104 


1100 


2.8 


.165 


619 


.153 


718 


.144 


824 


.119 


1188 


3.0 


.188 


663 


.174 


770 


.163 


883 


.135 


1273 


3.2 


.211 


708 


.195 


821 


.182 


942 


.152 


1357 


3.4 


.235 


752 


.218 


872 


.204 


1001 


.169 


1442 


3.6 


.261 


796 


.242 


923 


.226 


1060 


.188 


1527 


3.8 


.288 


840 


.267 


974 


.249 


1119 


.207 


1612 


4.0 


.315 


885 


.293 


1026 


.273 


1178 


.228 


1697 


4.2 


.345 


929 


.320 


1077 


.299 


1237 


.249 


1782 


4.4 


.375 


973 


.348 


1129 


.325 


1296 


.271 


1866 


4.6 


.407 


1017 


.378 


1180 


.353 


1355 


.294 


1951 


4.8 


.440 


1062 


.409 


1231 


.381 


1414 


.318 


2036 


5.0 


.474 


1106 


.440 


1283 


.411 


1472 


.342 


2121 


5.2 


.510 


1150 


.473 


1334 


.441 


1531 


.368 


2206 


5.4 


.546 


1194 


.507 


1385 


.473 


1590 


.394 


2291 


5.6 


.583 


1239 


.542 


1437 


.506 


1649 


.421 


2376 


5.8 


.622 


1283 


.578 


1488 


.540 


1708 


.450 


2460 


6.0 


.662 


1327 


.615 


1539 


.574 


1767 


.479 


2545 


7.0 


.8^9 


1548 


.817 


1796 


.762 


2061 


.636 


2968 



Example. — Have 200 feet head and 600 feet of 11-inch pipe, carrying 119 
cubic feet of water per minute. To find effective head. In right-hand 
column under 11-inch pipe, find 119 cubic feet; opposite this will be found 
the coefficient of friction for this amount of water, which is 444. Multiply 
this by the number of hundred feet of pipe, which is 6, and you will have 

Thi 



2.66 feet, which is the loss of head. 
2.66 = 197.34 



.herefore the effective head is 200- 



HYDRAULICS 



235 



CONTENTS IN CUBIC FEET, U. S. GALLONS, AND WEIGHT OF 
WATER PER FOOT LENGTH FOR PIPE OF VARIOUS 
DIAMETERS, ALSO AREA IN SQUARE FEET AND INCHES, 
AND CIRCUMFERENCE IN INCHES.* 



Diam- 


Area in Sq. 

Feet or 

Contents in 

Cubic Feet 

per Foot 

of Length. 


Contents in 


Weight of 






eter of 
Pipe in 
Inches. 


U. S. Gal- 
lons per 
Foot 


Water in 
One-foot 
Length, in 


Area in 
Sq. Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 




Length. 


Pounds. 






1 


.0055 


.0408 


.34 


.78 


3.14 


2 


.0218 


.1632 


1.36 


3.14 


6.28 


3 


.0491 


.3672 


3.06 


7.06 


9.42 


4 


.0873 


.6528 


5.44 


12.56 


12.56 


5 


.1364 


1.020 


8.51 


19.63 


15.70 


6 


.1963 


1.469 


12.25 


28.27 


18.85 


7 


.2673 


1.999 


16.68 


38.48 


21.99 


8 


.3491 


2.611 


21.79 


50.26 


25.13 


9 


.4418 


3.305 


27.57 


63.61 


28.27 


10 


.5454 


4.08 


34.04 


78.54 


31.41 


11 


.66 


4.937 


41.19 


95.03 


34.55 


12 


.7854 


5.875 


49.02 


113.10 


37.69 


13 


.9218 


6.895 


57.54 


132.73 


40.84 


14 


1.069 


7.997 


66.73 


153.94 


43.98 


15 


1.227 


9.180 


76.60 


176.71 


47.12 


16 


1.396 


10.44 


87.16 


201.06 


50.26 


18 


1.768 


13.22 


110.31 


254.47 


56.54 


20 


2.182 


16.32 


136.19 


314.16 


62.83 


22 


2.640 


19.75 


164.79 


380.13 


69.11 


24 


3.142 


23.50 


196.11 


452.39 


75.39 


26 


3.687 


27.58 


230.16 


530.93 


81.68 


28 


4.276 


31.99 


266.93 


615.75 


87.96 


30 


4.909 


36.72 


306.42 


706.86 


94.24 


32 


5.585 


41.78 


348.64 


804.25 


100.53 


34 


6.305 


47.16 


393.59 


907.92 


106.81 


36 


7.069 


52.88 


441.25 


1017.9 


113.09 


38 


7.876 


58.92 


491.64 


1134.1 


119.38 


40 


8.727 


65.28 


544.76 


1256.6 


125.66 


42 


9.621 


71.97 


600.59 


1385.4 


131.94 


44 


10.559 


78.99 


659.16 


1520.5 


138.23 


46 


11.541 


86.33 


720.44 


1661.9 


144.51 


48 


12.566 


94.00 


784.45 


1809.6 


150.79 


50 


13.635 


102.00 


851.18 


1963.5 


157.08 


52 


14.748 


110.32 


920.64 


2123.7 


163.36 


54 


15.90 


118.97 


992.82 


2290.2 


169.64 


60 


19.63 


146.88 


1225.71 


2827.4 


188.49 


66 


23.76 


177.72 


1483.11 


3421.2 


207.34 


72 


28.27 


211.51 


1765.02 


4071.5 


226.19 



* Also see table on page 247. 



236 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

AMOUNT OF WATER AND PRESSURE IN PNEUMATIC 
TANKS. 

Pneumatic tanks are used to elevate water to various heights 
by means of compressed air in the tank obtained by forcing water 
in the tank when it is full of air, the tank and connections being 
air-tight. 

The pressure in the tank increases as the water is forced in. 

The amount of water in the tank at various pressures is as 
follows: 

At 5 pounds pressure the tank is about one-fourth full of water. 
At 10 pounds pressure the tank is about two-fifths full of water. 
At 15 pounds pressure the tank is about one-half full of water. 
At 20 pounds pressure the tank is about three-fifths full of water. 
At 23 pounds pressure the tank is about two-thirds full of water. 
At 30 pounds pressure the tank is about seven-tenths full of water. 
At 45 pounds pressure the tank is about three-fourths full of water. 
At 60 pounds pressure the tank is about four-fifths full of water. 

Thus by means of a pressure gauge the amount of water in the 
tank can be ascertained at any time. 

The height to which the various pressures will elevate water is 
as follows: 

5 pounds pressure will elevate water about. 11 feet. 
10 pounds pressure will elevate water about 23 feet. 
15 pounds pressure will elevate water about 34 feet. 
20 pounds pressure will elevate water about 46 feet. 
25 pounds pressure will elevate water about 57 feet. 
30 pounds pressure will elevate water about 69 feet. 
45 pounds pressure will elevate water about 103 feet. 
60 pounds pressure will elevate water about 138 feet. 

To drain a pneumatic tank a valve below the tank should be 
opened. If a valve above the tank be opened it will only lower the 
water in the tank to the height obtained by the pressure of water 
to the height of the valve. Thus a valve 11 feet above the tank 
will only draw water down to 5 pounds pressure, or will still leave 
the tank one-quarter full of water. This is due to the hydro- 
static pressure (or pressure of the weight of the water) at the 
height of 11 feet, which equals about 5 pounds pressure in the 
tank. 

The supply from a pneumatic tank should always be taken 
from the bottom, so as to draw off the water and not the air 
which is compressed in the top of the tank. 

The tank of a pneumatic system should be entirely emptied 
once in a while to fill the tank with air; if there should be a leak 
and the air escape it lowers the amount of air in the tank and 
also the pressure. 



HYDRAULICS 



237 



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rHrHrHrHrHl-HrHi-HrHr-fCMCMcMcMCMeOCO 


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238 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT OF WATER PER CUBIC FOOT AT DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES. 



fa'© 


&2 




© O 

GO 


3-g 


U -43 

© o 
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©-a 
fa/3 


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•=> 3.3 


0) 3. 


02 P=4 

.SPo3 
©CuO 


Is 

Ml 


IBS 


S© 
SJ5 


■gc.S 


|£ 




S -§ 




S£ 


50 3 


EH 


H 


HP^ 


H 


£ 


H 


£ 


32° 


62.42 


140° 


61.37 


240° 


59.10 


350° 


55.52 


460° 


51.26 


40 


62.42 


150 


61.18 


250 


58.81 


360 


55.16 


470 


50.85 


50 


62.41 


160 


60.98 


260 


58.52 


370 


54.79 


480 


50.44 


60 


62.37 


170 


60.77 


270 


58.21 


380 


54.41 


490 


50.05 


70 


62.31 


180 


60.55 


280 


57.90 


390 


54.03 


500 


49.61 


80 


62.23 


190 


60.32 


290 


57.59 


400 


53.64 


510 


49.20 


90 


62.13 


200 


60.07 


300 , 


57.26 


410 


53.26 


520 


48.78 


100 


62.02 


210 


59.82 


310 


56.93 


420 


52.86 


530 


48.36 


110 


61.69 


212 


59.71 


320 


56.58 


430 


52.47 


540 


47.94 


120 


61.74 


220 


59.64 


330 


56.24 


440 


52.07 


550 


47.52 


130 


61.56 


230 


59.37 


340 


55.88 


450 


51.66 


560 


47.10 



Data on Pumps. — Depth op Suction. — Theoretically a 
perfect pump will lift water from a depth of nearly 34 feet, cor- 
responding to a perfect vacuum (14.7 lbs. X 2. 309 = 33.95 feet); 
but since a perfect vacuum cannot be obtained, on account of 
valve leakage, air contained in the water, and the vapor of the 
water itself, the actual height is generally less than 30 feet. In 
pumping hot water, the water must flow into the pump by 
gravity. The following table shows the theoretical maximum 
depth of suction for different temperatures, leakage not con- 
sidered : 





Absolute 




Maxi- 




Absolute 




Maxi 


Tem- 


Pressure 


Vacuum 


mum 


Tern- 


Pressure 


Vacuum 


mum 


of Vapor, 


in Inches 


Depth 


of Vapor, 


in Inches 


Depth 


ture, F. 


Pounds 


of Mer- 


of Suc- 


ture, F. 


Pounds 


of Mer- 


of Suc- 


per Sq. 


cury. 


tion, 


per Sq. 


cury. 


tion, 




Inch. 




Feet. 




Inch. 




Feet. 


101.4 


1 


27.88 


31.6 


183.0 


8 


13.63 


15.5 


126.2 


2 


25.85 


29.3 


188.4 


9 


11.59 


13.2 


144.7 


a 


23.81 


27.0 


193.2 


10 


9.55 


10.9 


153.3 


4 


21.77 


24.7 


197.6 


11 


7.51 


8.5 


162.5 


5 


19.74 


22.4 


201.9 


12 


5.48 


6.2 


170.3 


6 


17.70 


20.1 


205.8 


13 


3.44 


3.9 


177.0 


7 


15.66 


17.8 


209.6 


14 


1.40 


1.6 



A suction-lift pump is one that raises water only to the level 
of the pump spout. 

A force-pump is one that raises water to the pump and also 
forces it to any reasonable altitude above the pump. 



HYDRAULICS 



239 



TABLE OF CAPACITY OF PUMPS. 

The figures at the extreme left of the table are piston or plunger diameters; 
the line of figures across the top are piston or plunger strokes; the figures in 
the body of the table are the capacity or displacement in gallons, corre- 
sponding to a single stroke. To find the capacity for one revolution, multi- 
ply the capacity for a single stroke by two. 







LENGTH OF STROKE IN INCHES. 


Diam. of 








Cylinder, 


















Inches. 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


12 


13 


I! 


.0106 


.0159 


.0212 


.0266 


.0319 


.0372 


.0638 


.0691 


.0129 


.0193 


.0257 


.0321 


.0386 


.045 


.0771 


.0835 


11 


.0153 


.0229 


.0306 


.0382 


.0459 


.0535 


.0918 


.0994 


.0208 


.0312 


.0416 


.0521 


.0625 


.0729 


.1249 


.1353 


2 


.0272 


.0408 


.0544 


.068 


.0816 


.0952 


.1632 


.1768 


2i 


.0344 


.0516 


.0688 


.086 


.1033 


.1205 


.2065 


.2238 


2i 


.0425 


.0638 


.0850 


.1063 


.1275 


.1488 


.255 


.2763 


21 


.0514 


.0771 


.1029 


.1286 


.1543 


.18 


.3086 


.3343 


3 


.0612 


.0918 


.1224 


.1530 


.1836 


.2142 


.3672 


.3978 


11 


.0718 


.1077 


.1437 


.1796 


.2154 


.2514 


.431 


.4668 


.0833 


.1249 


.1666 


.2082 


.2499 


.2915 


.4997 


.5414 


3i 


.0957 


.1435 


.1913 


.2392 


.287 


.3348 


.574 


.6214 


4 


.1088 


.1632 


.2176 


.272 


.3265 


.3809 


.653 


.7074 


4i 


.1229 


.1843 


.2457 


.3071 


.3684 


.4300 


.7371 


.7986 


44 


.1377 


.2065 


.2753 


.3443 


.413 


.4818 


.826 


.8948 


4f 


.1534 


.2301 


.3068 


.3835 


.4603 


.537 


.9205 


.9972 


5 


.17 


.2550 


.34 


.4250 


.51 


.5950 


1.02 


1.105 


it 


.1874 


.2812 


.3749 


.4686 


.5623 


.6561 


1.125 


1.218 


.2057 


.3086 


.4114 


.5143 


.6171 


.72 


1.234 


1.337 


51 


.2248 


.3373 


.4497 


.5621 


.6745 


.787 


1.349 


1.461 


6 


.2448 


.3672 


.4896 


.612 


.7343 


. 8567 


1.469 


1.59 


6* 


.2656 


.3984 


.5312 


.6641 


.7969 


.9297 


1.594 


1.727 


11 


.2872 


.4309 


.5745 


.7182 


.8618 


1.005 


1.724 


1.867 


.3099 


.4648 


.6197 


.7747 


.9296 


1.085 


1.859 


2.014 


7 


.3332 


.4999 


.6665 


.8331 


.9997 


1.166 


1.999 


2.166 


71 


.4084 


.6126 


.8168 


1.021 


1.225 


1.429 


2.45 


2.654 


8 


.4352 


.6529 


.8704 


1.089 


1.306 


1.523 


2.611 


2.829 


9 


.5508 


.8263 


1.102 


1.377 


1.652 


1.928 


3.305 


3.580 


10 


.68 


1.02 


1.36 


1.7 


2.04 


2.38 


4.08 


4.42 


10* 


.7497 


1.125 


1.499 


1.874 


2.249 


2.624 


4.498 


4.873 


11 


.8228 


1.234 


1.646 


2.057 


2.468 


2.88 


4.937 


5.348 


12 


.9792 


1.469 


1.958 


2.448 


2.938 


3.427 


5.875 


6.365 


13 


1.149 


1.723 


2.297 


2.872 


3.445 


4.022 


6.894 


7.467 


14 


1.332 


1.998 


2.665 


3.331 


3.997 


4.664 


7.994 


8.661 


15 


1.53 


2.295 


3.06 


3.825 


4.59 


5.354 


9.18 


9.943 


16 


1.74 


2.61 


3.48 


4.35 


5.22 


6.09 


10.44 


11.31 


18 


2.203 


3.305 


4.406 


5.508 


6.61 


7.711 


13.22 


14.32 


20 


2.720 


4.08 


5.440 


6.8 


8.16 


9.52 


16.32 


17.68 


22 


3.291 


4.936 


6.582 


8.228 


9.874 


11.52 


19.75 


21.39 


24 


3.916 


5.875 


7 . 833 


9.792 


11.75 


13.71 


23.5 


25.46 



240 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLE OF CAPACITY OF PUMPS — Continued. 



Diam. 




LENGTH OF STROKE IN INCHES. 




of Cyl- 


















inder, 


















Inches. 


16 


18 


20 


24 


25 


33 


36 


38 


H 


.085 


.0956 


.1062 


.1274 


.1328 


.1753 


.1912 


.2021 


If 


.1029 


.1156 


.1286 


.1543 


.1607 


.2121 


.2314 


.2442 


1§ 


.1224 


.1377 


.1530 


.1836 


.1912 


.2524 


.2754 


.2907 


If 


.1666 


.1874 


.2082 


.2499 


.2603 


.3436 


.3748 


.3956 


2 


.2176 


.2448 


.2720 


.3264 


.340 


.4489 


.4897 


.5169 


2i 


.2754 


.3098 


.3442 


.4131 


.4303 


.568 


.6196 


.6541 


2% 


.340 


.3825 


.425 


.51 


.5313 


.7013 


.765 


.8075 


21 


.4114 


.4628 


.5143 


.6171 


.6429 


.8486 


.9257 


.9771 


3 


.4896 


.5508 


.612 


.7344 


.765 


1.01 


1.102 


1.163 


3i 


.5746 


.6464 


.7183 


.8619 


.8978 


1.185 


1.293 


1.365 


3£ 


.6663 


.7496 


.833 


.9995 


1.041 


1.374 


1.499 


1.583 


31 


.7653 


.8610 


.9561 


1.148 


1.196 


1.579 


1.722 


1.818 


4 


.8706 


.9795 


1.088 


1.306 


1.36 


1.796 


1.959 


2.068 


4i 


.9828 


1.106 


1.229 


1.474 


1.536 


2.027 


2.211 


2.333 


4} 


1.101 


1.239 


1.377 


1.652 


1.721 


2.271 


2.478 


2.616 


4f 


1.227 


1.378 


1.534 


1.841 


1.918 


2.531 


2.762 


2.915 


5 


1.36 


1.53 


1.7 


2.04 


2.125 


2.805 


3.060 


3.23 


5i 


1.5 


1.687 


1.874 


2.249 


2.343 


3.093 


3.374 


3.561 


5* 


1.646 


1.851 


2.057 


2.468 


2.571 


3.394 


3.703 


3.908 


51 


1.799 


2.023 


2.248 


2.698 


2.811 


3.71 


4.047 


4.272 


6 


1.958 


2.203 


2.448 


2.938 


3.06 


4.038 


4.406 


4.65 


6i 


2.125 


2.39 


2.656 


3.188 


3.32 


4.383 


4.781 


5.047 


6i 


2.298 


2.585 


2.873 


3.447 


3.591 


4.74 


5.171 


5.458 


61 


2.479 


2.788 


3.099 


3.718 


3.873 


5.113 


5.578 


5.887 


7 


2.666 


2.999 


3.332 


3.999 


4.165 


5.499 


5.998 


6.332 


71 


3.267 


3.675 


4.084 


4.9 


5.105 


6.739 


7.351 


7.759 


8 


3.482 


3.917 


4.352 


5.223 


5.44 


7.181 


7.834 


8.269 


9 


4.406 


4.957 


5 . 508 


6.610 


6.885 


9.089 


9.915 


10.46 


10 


5.44 


6.12 


6.8 


8.16 


8.5 


11.22 


12.24 


12.92 


10£ 


5.998 


6.747 


7.497 


8.996 


9.37 


12.37 


13.49 


14.24 


11 


6.582 


7.405 


8.228 


9.873 


10.28 


13.58 


14.81 


15.63 


12 


7.834 


8.813 


9.792 


11.75 


12.24 


16.16 


17.63 


18.6 


13 


9.192 


10.34 


11.49 


13.78 


14.36 


18.96 


20.69 


21 . S3 


14 


10.66 


11.99 


13.32 


15.98 


16.66 


21.99 


23.99 


25.32 


15 


12.23 


13 . 77 


15.29 


18.36 


19.12 


25.24 


27.54 


29.07 


16 


13.92 


15.66 


17.40 


20.88 


21.76 


28.72 


31.33 


33.07 


18 


17.62 


19.82 


22.03 


26.44 


27.54 


36.35 


39.66 


41.86 


20 


21.76 


24.48 


27.2 


32.64 


34. 


44.88 


48.96 


51.68 


22 


26.33 


29.62 


32.91 


39.49 


41.14 


54.3 


59.24 


62.53 


24 


31.33 


35.25 


39.16 


47.0 


48.96 


64.63 


70.50 


74.42 



HYDRAULICS 



241 



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242 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Data Regarding Water. — Doubling the diameter of a 
pipe increases its capacity four times. 

A gallon of water (United States standard) weighs 8.3311 
pounds and contains 231 cubic inches. 

A cubic foot of water contains 1\ gallons, 1728 cubic inches, 
and weighs 62^ pounds. 

Cubic feet of water multiplied by 62.5 equals pounds avoirdu- 
pois; cubic inches of water multiplied by 0.03608 equals pounds 
avoirdupois. 

Cubic feet multiplied by 7.48 equals United States gal- 
lons. 

Cubic inches multiplied by 0.004329 equals United States 
gallons. 

A column of water 1 inch square and 2.31 feet high weighs 
1 pound. 

A column of water 1 inch square and 1 foot high weighs 
0.433 pound. 

A column of water 33.947 feet high equals the pressure of 
the atmosphere at the sea-level. 

Water is an almost universal solvent; consequently pure 
water does not occur in nature. Sea-water contains nearly 
every known substance in solution. 

The latent heat of water is 79 thermal units. When water 
freezes it gives off its latent heat. The latent heat of steam 
is 536 thermal units. When steam condenses into water it 
gives off its latent heat. 

Pure water consists of 2 parts hydrogen and 1 part oxygen. 
Chemical name, hydrogen oxide; chemical symbol, H a O. Pure 
water is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, transparent liquid, and 
is practically incompressible. Water freezes at 32° Fahr. 
and boils at 212° Fahr. At its maximum density, 39.1° 
Fahr., it is the standard for specific gravities, and 1 
cubic centimetre weighs 1 gram. Salt water boils at 224° 
Fahr. 



1 U. S. gallon 



231 cubic inches. 

0.13369 cubic foot. 

8.3311 pounds of distilled water. 

8.34 pounds in ordinary practice. 



1 cubic foot 



DATA REGARDING WATER 243 

62.425 pounds at 39.1° Fahr., maximum den- 
sity. 
62.418 pounds at 32° Fahr., freezing-point. 
62.355 pounds at 62° Fahr., standard tempera- 
ture. 
59.64 pounds at 212° Fahr., boiling-point. 
57.5 pounds at ice. 
I 7.480 U. S. gallons. 



1 pound = 27.7 cubic inches. 
1 cubic inch = 0.03612-pound. 

One ft. of water column at 39.1° F. =62.425 lbs. on the square ft. 
" " " " " " " =0.4335 lb. " " " in. 

" " " " " " " =0.0295 atmospheric pres- 

sure. 
" " " " " " " =0.8826 in. mercury column 

at 32° F. 
" " " " " " " =773.3 ft. of air column at 

32° F. and atmospheric 

pressure. 

One lb. pressure on sq. ft. =0.01602 ft. water column at 39.1° F. 

" " " " " in. =2.307 " " " " 39.1° F. 

One atmospheric pressure =29.92 in. mercury column = 33.9 ft. 

water column. 
One inch of mercury column at 32° F. = 1.133 ft. water column. 
One foot of air column at 32° F. and 1 atmospheric pressure = 
0.001293 ft. water column. 

Expansion of Water in Freezing. — That " cold con- 
tracts " is the law of physics, but as water cools it obeys this 
law only as far as 30° F. Then it slowly expands in cooling 
down to 32° F., its freezing point. Then its crystals suddenly 
dart out at an angle to each other and thus increasing in size 
about one-twelfth, it congeals and becomes ice. Ice, therefore, 
is lighter than water about one-twelfth, and consequently floats. 

Pressure op Water at Various Depths. — To find the 
pressure of water at any depth, multiply the depth of the water 
in feet by 62.5. 



244 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The Pressure op Water in Tanks or Vessels. — The side 
of any tank or vessel containing water sustains a pressure equal 
to the area of the side in feet multiplied by one-half the depth in 
feet; that product multiplied by 62.5 will give the pressure in 
pounds on the side of the vessel. 

The pressure on the bottom of the vessel equals the area of the 
bottom in feet multiplied by the depth of water in feet and that 
product multiplied by 62.5 equals the pressure in pounds. 

Tensile Strain on Tanks. — The tension per square inch at 
any point in a tank is equal to the pressure per square inch at 
that point multiplied by the radius in inches. 

Boiling Point of Water. — At sea level water boils at a 
temperature of 212° F. but at higher elevations it boils at a 
lower temperature; at the hospital of St. Bernard, in Switzerland, 
8600 feet above sea level, water boils at 200°. In the Himalayas 
it has been found to boil at 180°. 

Resistance of Friction. — The resistance of friction in the 
flow of water through pipes of uniform diameters is independent 
of the pressure and increases directly as the length and the square 
of the velocity of the flow, and inversely as the diameter of the 
pipe. With wooden pipes the friction is 1.75 times greater than 
in metallic. 

To Determine Velocity. — To determine the velocity in 
feet per minute necessaiy to discharge a given volume of water 
in a given time, multiply the number of cubic feet of water by 
144 and divide by the area of the pipe in inches. 

To Determine the Area of Pipe Required. — To deter- 
mine the area of a required pipe, the volume and velocity of 
water being given, multiply the number of cubic feet of water by 
144 and divide the product by the velocity in feet per minute. 

Useful Information Regarding Water. — The mean 
pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 14.7 pounds 
per square inch, so that with a perfect vacuum it will sustain 
a column of mercury 29.9 inches, or a column of water 33.9 
feet high. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column 
of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. 
Approximately, we say that every foot elevation is equal to 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 245 

\ pound pressure per square inch; this allows for ordinary 
friction. 

To find the diameter of a pump-cylinder to move a given quantity 
of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the standard of 
speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the 
square root, and the product will be the diameter in inches of 
the pump-cylinder. 

To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 
100 feet of piston speed per minute, square the diameter of 
the water-cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example: 
Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. The square of the 
diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, 
the number of gallons per minute (approximately). 

To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water to a given 
height, multiply the total weight of the water in pounds by 
the height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an allow- 
ance of 25 per cent should be added for water-friction, and a 
further allowance of 25 per cent for loss in steam-cylinder). 

The area of the steam-piston, multiplied by the steam pres- 
sure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. 
The area of the water-piston, multiplied by the pressure of 
water per square inch, gives the resistance. A margin must 
be made between the power and resistance to move the pistons 
at the required speed — say from 20 to 40 per cent, according 
to speed and other conditions. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying 
the area in inches by the length of stroke in "inches will give 
the total number of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 
(which is the cubical contents of a United States gallon in 
inches), and product is the capacity in gallons. 

To find the height in feet of a column of water correspond- 
ing with a given pressure, multiply the pressure in pounds 
by 2.3 feet. 

The following table is arranged to show at a glance the equiva- 
lent pressure due to columns of water from 10 to 400 feet in 
height. Also more particularly to show the number of gallons 
of water delivered, and the height to which it will be projected 
through nozzles from \ inch to 2 inches in diameter. 



246 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



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DATA ON WATER 



247 



WEIGHT OF WATER IN FOOT LENGTHS OF PIPE OF 
DIFFERENT BORES.* 

(62.425 Lbs. Per Cubic Foot.) 



Bore, 


Water, 


Bore, 


Water, 


Bore, 


Water, 


Bore, 


Water, 


In. 


Lbs. 


In. 


Lbs. 


In. 


Lbs. 


In. 


Lbs. 


£ 


0.0053 


3 


3.0643 


7f 


20.450 


17 


98.397 


1 


0.0213 


3| 


3.3250 


8 


21.790 


171 


104.27 


1 


0.0479 


31 


3.5963 


81 


23.174 


18 


110.31 


i 


0.0851 


3f 


3.8782 


8* 


24.599 


181 


116.53 


f 


0.1330 


3* 


4.1708 


8f 


26.068 


19 


122.91 


* 


0.1915 


3f 


4.4741 


9 


27.579 


19i 


129.47 


I 


0.2607 


31 


4.7879 


91 


29.132 


20 


136.19 




0.3405 


31 


5.1125 


91 


30.728 


21 


150.15 


11 


0.4309 


4 


5.4476 


9! 


32.366 


22 


164.79 


H 


0.5320 


41 


6.1498 


10 


34.048 


23 


180.11 


U 


0.6437 


41 


6.8946 


101 


37.537 


24 


196.11 


l* 


0.7661 


4| 


7.6820 


11 


41.198 


25 


212.80 


if 


0.8997 


5 


8.5119 


HI 


45.028 


26 


230.16 


if 


1.0427 


51 


9.3844 


12 


49.028 


27 


248.21 


if 


1.1970 


6* 


10.299 


12i 


53.199 


28 


266.93 


2 


1.3619 


5! 


11.257 


13 


57.540 


29 


286.34 


2| 


1.5375 


6 


12.257 


13i 


62.052 


30 


306.43 


21 


1.7237 


81 


13.300 


14 


66.733 


31 


327.20 


2| 


1.9205 


61 


14.385 


141 


71.585 


32 


348.65 


2* 


2.1280 


6! 


15.513 


15 


76.607 


33 


370.78 


2f 


2.3461 


7 


16.683 


15i 


81.799 


34 


393.59 


2| 


2.5748 


71 


17.896 


16 


87.162 


35 


417.08 


2| 


2.8142 


71 


19.152 


161 


92.694 


36 


441.26 



Weights of water in cylinders of the same length are pro- 
portional to the squares of the diameters. Therefore, to get 
weight of cylinder of water one foot long and 60 inches diameter, 
take from above table weight of water of 30-inch pipe and multi- 
ply it by the square of 60 -=- 30, or the square of two, thus: 
306.43 X 4 = 1225.72 = the weight of water in one-foot length 
of a 60-inch pipe. 

* Also see table on page 235. 



248 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT AND CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT STANDARD GALLONS 
OF WATER. 





Cubic Inches 
in a Gallon. 


Weight of a 
Gallon in 
Pounds. 


Gallons in a 
Cubic Foot. 




277.274 
231 


10.00 
8.33111 


6 232102 




7.480519 







DISCHARGE OF WATER IN PIPES. 
For any Length and Head, and for Diameters from 1 Inch to 10 Feet, in 





Cubic Feet per Minute. — (Beardmore.) 




Diameter. 


Tabular 
Number. 


Diameter. 


Tabular 
Number. 


Diameter. 


Tabular 
Number. 


Ft. Ins. 




Ft. 


Ins. 




Ft. Ins. 




1 


4.71 


1 


7 


7433 


3 7 


57265 


1.25 


8.48 


1 


8 


8449 


3 8 


60648 


1.5 


13.02 


1 


9 


9544 


3 9 


64156 


1.75 


19.15 


1 


10 


10722 


3 10 


67782 


2 


26.69 


1 


11 


11983 


3 11 


71526 


2.5 


46.67 


2 




13328 


4 


75392 


3 


73.5 


2 


1 


14758 


4 3 


87730 


3.5 


108.14 


2 


2 


16278 


4 6 


101207 


4 


151.02 


2 


3 


17889 


4 9 


115854 


4.5 


194.84 


2 


4 


19592 


5 


131703 


5 


263.87 


2 


5 


21390 


5 3 


148791 


6 


416.54 


2 


6 


23282 


5 6 


167139 


7 


612.32 


2 


7 


25270 


5 9 


186786 


8 


654.99 


2 


8 


27358 


6 


207754 


9 


1147.6 


2 


9 


29547 


6 6 


253781 


10 


1493 . 5 


2 


10 


31834 


7 


305437 


11 


1894.9 


2 


11 


34228 


7 6 


362935 


1 


2356 


3 




36725 


8 


426481 


1 1 


2876.7 


3 


1 


39329 


8 6 


496275 


1 2 


3463 . 3 


3 


2 


42040 


9 


572508 


1 3 


4115.9 


3 


3 


44863 


9 6 


655369 


1 4 


4836.9 


3 


4 


47794 


10 


745038 


1 5 


5628.5 


3 


5 


50835 






1 6 


6493 . 1 


3 


6 


53995 







This table is applicable to sewers and drains by taking same proportion 
of tabular numbers that area of cross-section of water in sewer or drain 
bears to whole area of sewer or drain. 

To Compute Volume Discharged when Length of Pipe, 
Height or Fall, and Diameter are Given. — Rule. — Divide 
tabular number, opposite to diameter of tube, by square root 
of rate of inclination, and quotient will give volume required 
in cubic feet per minute. 

Example. — A pipe has a diameter of 9 inches, and a length 
of 4750 feet; what is its discharge per minute under a head of 17.5 
feet? 

1147.61 1147.61 



Tab. No. 9 in. = 1147.6, and 



16.47 



=69.67 cubic feet. 



DATA REGARDING WATER 249 

To Compute Diameter when Length, Head, and Volume 
are Given. — Rule. — Multiply discharge per minute by square 
root of ratio of inclination; take nearest corresponding number 
in table, and opposite to it is diameter required. 

Example. — Take elements of preceding case. 

69.67X 1/7=-^ = 1147.61, and opposite to this is 9 inches. 
" 17.5 



r > i/ r <r> , = d in feet ; v representing velocity in feet per 
V 1542/1 

second, and I length in feet. 

To Compute Head when Length, Discharge, and Diameter 
are Given. — Rule. — Divide tabular number for diameter by 
discharge per minute, square quotient, and divide length of 
pipe by it; quotient will give head necessary to force given 
volume of water through pipe in one minute. 

Example. — Take elements of preceding cases: 

1 ^ 7 ;^ 1 =16.47; 16.47 2 = 271.3; 4750-r- 271.2 = 17.5 feet. 
69.67 

To Compute Velocity when Volume and Diameter Alone 
are Given. — Rule. — Divide volume when in feet per minute by 
area in feet, and quotient, divided by 60, will give velocity 
in feet per second. 

Example. — Take elements of preceding case: 

60 =2.63 feet. 



0.75 2 X 0.7854 



1 When Volume is Not Given — Rule. — Multiply square root 
of product of height of pipe by diameter in feet, divided by 
length in feet, by 50, and product will give velocity in feet 
per second. (Beardmore.) 

To Compute Inclination of Pipe when Volume, Diameter, 

V ) 2 1 H 



and Length are Given : . , 

( 2356 ) D 5 L 

Illustration. — Take elements of preceding case: 



5 69 . 67 ] 1 2 
( 2356 J 



X;r4«= 0.000847X4. 214 =0.00368, 



. 2356 S ' 0.75 5 
and 

^1 = . 00368 , or 4750 X . 00368 = 1 7 . 49 ft. head. 
4750 



250 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Sewers, etc. 

The system of drainage pipes within a building is usually- 
called soil pipes, or house drains, but after the pipes pass outside 
the building they are called sewers. 

In nearly all the large cities the building codes compel the 
use of cast-iron pipe within the buildings, but after passing to the 
outside of the building various kinds of pipe are used, the majority 
of the small sewers being made with what is known as vitrified 
salt glazed sewer pipe. These pipes make an excellent sewer 
when certain precautionary measures are taken when the pipes 
are laid. 

The efficiency of all pipe sewers, whether private or public, 
depends on the care with which they are laid. The objects to 
be aimed at when laying pipe sewers are tight joints, true grades, 
generous curves, the least possible disturbance of the flow at the 
numerous inlets, and laid on the greatest possible inclination. 

Excavation. — Commence at the lower end or outlet of the 
proposed drain or sewer, and make the trench of uniform, 
gradual, and continuous inclination, and distribute the whole 
available fall over the entire length of the sewer. After bring- 
ing the bottom of the trench to a uniform grade, cut out of the 
bottom of the trench holes or pockets for the hubs of the pipes 
to set in ; these hubs should be free and the pipe should be carried 
by its body resting on the bottom of the trench. If the ground 
is of a rocky or rough nature a layer of sand should be spread on 
the bottom of the trench and the pipe set in this sand, so that 
each length of pipe has a solid bed. The pipe will sustain the 
greatest amount of vertical pressure when it has a firm and 
uniform bearing at all points on its lower surface. 

Inclination. — The object of giving an inclination or fall 
to a sewer is to secure the velocity necessary for the removal 
of such solid matters as may exist in the sewage. A fall of 1 
in 40 to 1 in 60 is desirable for pipes of 4 to 6 inches in diameter, 
and greater if attainable. 

A grade of 1 in 90 is the least that should be given to small 
house drains, in order to make them self cleansing. Large 
pipes require less fall than small ones. A well-constructed 18- 
inch pipe sewer, on a grade of 1 in 1000 running half full, will be 
self cleansing. 



SEWERS 



551 



The sewer should have a straight and uniform fall its entire 
length so that the water and sewage will have the same velocity 
the entire length of the sewer, the depth of which should be suffi- 
cient to float and carry along any solid matter that will enter 
the sewer. 

The sewer should be large enough to earn- the largest amount 
of water that may enter it at any one time, yet it must not be so 




Fig. 65. Sewer with sufficient 
water to be self cleansing. 




Fig. 66. Sewer witli not sufficient 
water to "be self cleansing. 



large that at the time of the ordinary flow of water the water will 
be too shallow to carry the solids. Fig. 65 shows a sewer running 
about half full, which will cany along all solid matter as shown; 
Fig. 66 shows the same sewer 
with not enough water to carry 
the solids, which will leave a 
deposit of slime and dirt along 
the inside of the sewer. 

When a sewer or drain passes 
through a wall, the opening should 
be made large enough so that in 
case of settlement of the wall or 
building no weight will come 
upon the pipe; Fig. 67 shows 
how such an opening should be 
constructed and covered with a lintel or cap stone. 

Mode of Laying. — Commence laying the pipe at the end or 
outlet with the hubs all facing up grade: lay with a perfectly 
true line of fall from point to point of the sewer, and give each 
pipe a uniform bearing throughout its whole length. Each and 
every joint of pipe should have a secure and solid bed so there 
will be no settlement to break the pipe or cause displacement 
as shown by Fig. 6S. thus making a pocket in the sewer. 




Fig. 67. Opening in "Wall for 
Sewer Pipe. 



252 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



The ends of each length of pipe should abut squarely and truly 
against the adjoining pieces, so as to present an absolute con- 
tinuity and uniformity in the interior of the drain, particularly 
at the bottom line. The space between the spigot and hub end 
of the pipe should be filled with cement mortar, which should be 
pressed into place with the fingers. In cementing the joints 




Fig. 68. Pocket in Sewer caused by settlement. 

especial care should be exercised to see that the cement does not 
ooze out into the interior of the pipe. A careless workman will 
often make the joint as shown at A, Fig. 69, leaving a ridge of 
cement around the inside of the pipe, which will retard the flow 
of the sewage and cause the pipe to fill with sediment; the joint 
should be left as shown at B. 

As each piece of pipe is laid in position, the inside of the pipe 
around the joint should be wiped out clean as shown by B, Fig. 69. 




"^ wmm a 

Fig. 69. Good and poor cement joints in Sewer Pipe. 

If it is a small pipe, fasten a rag on the end of a stick and run it 
into the pipe, wiping out the surplus cement mortar that may 
have oozed out of the joint. 

A good method of joining the pipes so as to prevent the cement 
from protruding into the pipe, and to secure a concentric bore 
at the joints, is to force into the hub between the hub and spigot 
several strands of tarred hemp or oakum of sufficient diameter 
to fit the hub tightly. It should be forced into the hub with a 
calking tool, and then the cement joint made in the usual way. 
If this method of using gaskets is not used in laying the pipes, 



SEWERS 253 

the interior of each joint should be swabbed out after cementing 
as previously described. 

Cement Mortar. — The cement mortar employed to make 
the joints should be in the proportion of one part cement to two 
parts clean, sharp sand. The cement and sand should be care- 
fully mixed dry, and the water afterwards added, mixing just 
what will be used immediately, and not allowed to stand until 
it sets. Any amount can be mixed dry, but just enough to make 
five or six joints should be wet and mixed at one time. 

Connection of Branch and Main. — When a small sewer or 
drain connects with and enters a larger one the connection should 
be made with a Y branch as shown by Fig. 70, which should 
be turned up so the inlet will be near the top of the large sewer 
and above the water line of the sewer. See page 256 for the 
various fittings made for vitrified pipe. 




Fig. 70. Y Branch Connection. 

Joints of Cast Iron Soil and Sewer Pipe. — The joints of 
cast iron soil pipe are usually made with lead, and should be run 
and calked so as to be water and air tight. 

The space between the spigot and the hub of the pipe should be 
calked with a ring of oakum of good quality. This oakum 
should be pulled apart and then twisted into a short rope just 
long enough to reach around the pipe and thick enough to fill the 
space in the joint. This rope of oakum is wrapped around the 
spigot end of the pipe and calked into the hub. It should be 
calked so that it holds the spigot in the center of the hub, and is 
tight enough to prevent the hot lead from running through. 

The lead should be hot enough and melted in sufficient quantity 



254 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

to pour the joint without cooling. The lead should be run so 
that it comes a little above the rim of the hub so that there will 
be sufficient for calking, and after being calked the hub will be 
entirely filled. 

The lead for running the joints should be of a soft quality so 
it will expand under the calking tool. 

Asphalt Pipe Joints. — The joints of vitrified sewer pipe 
are usually made with cement as previously explained, but 
asphalt and sulphur have been used successfully for this purpose. 

In England and Germany asphalt has been used extensively, 
and with good success, for making joints of sewer pipe. The 
joint is calked and prepared as for running lead, and the hot 
asphalt run in. 

As a test in one instance a long stretch of pipe was laid, and 
after making the joints the two ends were plugged, and the 
trench allowed to fill with water. The result was that the pipe 
floated, showing that the joints were both flexible and water tight. 

Sulphur Joints. — At West Orange, N.J., sulphur was used 
successfully for making the joints of a sewer system. The sul- 
phur is heated in an ordinary ladle, and by tests it has been found 




Fig. 71. Hydraulic Test of Sewer System. 

that the strongest mixture is equal parts of sulphur and sand. 
A sulphur composition called " Pozite " is sold by F. H. Pough, 
New York. It is a mixture of sulphur and sand. 

Filling the Trench. — As fast as the filling is deposited in 
the trench (the sand or fine dirt first), it should be thoroughly 
puddled and tamped, especially under and around the lower 
half of the pipe, and to such an extent as to render the subse- 
quent settlement of the filling impossible. 



SEWERS 



255 



Testing Vitrified Pipe Sewer. — If at any time vitrified 
pipe is used for drainage inside a building, the system, after 
being laid and the cement in the joints hard, should be sub- 
jected to a water test as follows; this test can be made in about 
a week after the pipe is laid, as the cement in the joints will then 
be hard enough to withstand the pressure. 

Plug all the openings of the sewer except one, which should be 
a tee or branch; in this opening insert and make tight a stand- 
pipe of sufficient height to give the desired water pressure for the 
test as shown by Fig. 71 (see page 220 for pressure of water at 
various heights). 

After this pipe is put in place fill the entire line with water 
until it overflows at the top of the standpipe. Let the water 
stand for awhile and then examine all joints, etc., for leaks. A 
valve and connection can be put in the standpipe so that a 
hose can be attached for filling the line. 



QUANTITY OF CEMENT, ETC., REQUIRED FOR LAYING 
SEWER PIPE. 

Table prepared by J. N. Hazlehurst, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Atlanta, Ga. 
Quantities of Cement, Sand, and of Cement Mortar, for Sewer Pipe Joints. 
For each 100 feet of sewer (with Portland Cement 375 pounds net per bbl). 

, Proportions: 1 Cement to x 

, 1 sand ^ f 2 sand N 



Size 

of 

Pipe. 


Length, 


Mortar, 
Cu. 

Yds. 


Cement , 


Sand, 


No. 
Ft. to 


Cement , 


Sand, 


No. 

Ft. to 


Feet. 


Bbls. 


Cu. Yd. 
0.00201 


Bbl. 

Cemt. 


Bbls. 


Cu. Yd. 
0.00252 


Bbl. 

Cemt. 


6-in. 


21 


0.003 


0.01248 


803 


0.00855 


1,168 


8-in. 


2* 


0.038 


0.15808 


0.02546 


633 


0.10830 


0.03192 


923 


LO-in. 


2* 


0.058 


0.24128 


0.03886 


410 


0.16530 


0.04872 


605 


12-in. 


2% 


0.089 


0.37024 


0.05963 


270 


0.25365 


0.07476 


394 


L5-in. 


2* 


0.123 


0.51268 


0.08241 


195 


0.35055 


0.10332 


285 


18-in. 


2i 


0.167 


0.69472 


0.11189 


144 


0.47595 


0.14018 


210 


20-in. 


2+ 


0.237 


0.98592 


0.15879 


101 


0.67545 


0.19908 


148 


24-in. 


2* 


0.299 


1.24384 


0.20033 


80 


0.85215 


0.25116 


117 


27-in. 


3 


0.492 


2.04672 


0.32964 


49 


1.40220 


0.41328 


71 


30-in. 


3 


0.548 


2.27968 


0.36716 


44 


1.56180 


0.46032 


64 


36-in. 


3 


0.849 


3.53184 


0.56883 


29 


2.41965 


0.71316 


41 



256 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




Center Hand Hole 




Hand Hole Trap 



Socket Pipe 





Double Y Branch 




Curve 




Increaser 



S. Trap 




Running Trap 




P. Trap 




Double T. 



Slant 
Fig. 72. Sewer Pipe Fittings. 



SEWERS 



257 



Cleaning Sewers. — It is an important condition of all 
properly constructed sewers that they should at all times be kept 
free from sedimentary deposits, and from the adhesion of foul 
and slimy matter to their side walls. 

An effective way to remove sedimentary deposits from large 
pipe sewers is as follows: A wooden ball about 2 inches smaller 
than the size of the pipe sewer to be cleaned is introduced into 
the sewer through the manhole. The ball floats against the top 
or crown of the sewer, thus making a sort of a dam and partially 
retarding the flow of water. The water held back in this manner 
will force the ball along; at the same time the water is running 
under the ball with great force, cutting away any deposits that 
may have accumulated on the bottom of the sewer. The deposits 
are carried away by the water to the manhole below, where 
they can be removed. A rope is attached to the ball so that in 
case there are any obstructions in the sewer which the ball cannot 
force out, or if the sewer has settled, as is sometimes the case, 
by means of this rope the ball can be drawn back to the starting- 
point. By measuring the length of the rope that was in the 
sewer the exact location of the obstruction can be located, 
without digging up the whole length of the sewer. When clean- 
ing sewers with the ball, commence at the highest point of the 
sewer and work towards the outlet. 

Inclination or Fall of Sewers. — All sewers should have 
the greatest possible fall or inclination. The greater the fall, 
the greater is the velocity. In order to prevent deposits in 
sewers, it is necessary to provide a certain velocity in the flow 
of sewage, which must be secured throughout the whole system 
of sewers, and such velocity must be sufficient to prevent any 
settlement of and to move along the sewer any solid matter. 

To effect this, 2 feet per second for street sewers, and 3 feet 
per second for house drains, is considered the minimum velocity. 

The greater the velocity, the greater is the carrying capacity 
of the sewer. 

FALL AT WHICH HOUSE DRAINS SHOULD BE LAID. 



Diameter of pipe, 
inches 

Length to 1 foot of 
fall, feet .... 



2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 



10 
100 



258 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



The following table gives the inclination and velocity of sewers 
running full or half-full. 

INCLINATION OF CIRCULAR SEWERS FOR VELOCITIES 
FROM TWO TO FOUR FEET PER SECOND, RUNNING FULL 
OR HALF FULL. 



Diameter in 
Inches. 



3 

4 
5, 

6 

8. 
10 
12. 
14 
16 
18. 
20. 
22. 
24. 



Velocity, 


Velocity, v 
2.5 Feet _ 


Ve 
elocity, 


locity, 
5 Feet 


2 Feet per 
Second. 


per Sec- „ 
ond. 


Feet per 
econd. p€ 


r Sec- 
ond. 


1 in 145 


1 in 96 1 


in 68 1 


in 51 




' 194 


" 129 


' 92 


' 68 




1 243 


" 160 


' 115 


' 85 




' 292 


" 193 


' 137 


' 102 




' 389 


" 257 


' 183 


' 137 




' 486 


" 322 


' 229 


' 171 




' 583 


" 386 


' 275 


' 205 




' 685 


" 452 


' 322 


' 241 




1 777- 


" 513 


' 366 


' 273 




' 875 


" 579 


' 412 


' 307 




' 972 


" 643 


' 458 


' 342 




' 1069 


" 708 


' 504 


' 376 




' 1166 


" 772 


1 550 


' 410 



Velocity, 

4 Feet per 

Second. 



1 in 39 

" 53 

" 66 

" 80 

" 106 

" 133 

" 159 

" 187 

" 212 

" 239 

" 265 

" 292 

" 318 



Data for Flumes and Ditches. — To give a general idea as 
to the capacity of flumes and ditches for carrying water, the 
following data are given. 

The greatest safe velocity for a wooden flume is about 7 or 8 
feet per second. For an earth ditch this should not exceed about 
3 feet per second. In California it is the general practice to lay 
a flume on a grade of about \ inch to the rod, or often 2 inches to 
the 100 feet, depending on the existing conditions. 

Assuming a rectangular flume 3 feet wide, running 18 inches 
deep, its velocity and capacity would be as follows: 



Grade. 


Velocity in Feet 
per Second. 


Quantity Cubic 
Feet per Minute. 


\ inch to the rod 


2.6 
3.7 
5.3 


702 


\ inch to the rod 


999 


| inch to the rod 


1,431 



SEWERS, ETC. 259 

As the velocity in a flume or ditch is dependent largely on its 
siae and character of formation, only approximate data can be 
given. 

It is not safe to run either ditch or flume more than about three- 
fourths or seven-eighths full. 

Fall to produce a Current. — A fall of 3 inches per mile 
in a river will create a current, and produce a velocity of about 
3 miles per hour. 

Carrying Capacity of Sewers Used for Surface 
Drainage. — When the area to be drained and the fall of the 
sewer are known, the size of the pipe required can be easily ascer- 
tained by referring to the following table, which gives the number 
of cubic feet discharged per minute by specified sizes and grades. 
In main sewers this flow, of course, is greatly increased by the 
added pressure of the connecting branches. 

Statistics show the maximum rainfall to be about one inch 
per hour, except during very heavy and uncommon storms. 

One inch rainfall per hour gives 3630 cubic feet per hour for 
each acre, or 60.5 cubic feet per minute per acre. 

Experience shows that owing to various obstructions, not over 
50 or 75 per cent of the rain falling will reach the sewer within 
the same hour. Due allowance should be made for this fact in 
determining the size of pipe required, as severe storms are of 
usually short duration. 

Velocity of Water in Sewers and Pipes. — When running 
half full of water the velocity in sewers and pipes will be about 
the same as when running full. 

As the water increases in volume over half filling the pipe the 
velocity increases until the pipe is filled to .9 of its diameter, 
when at this point the velocity is about 10 per cent greater than 
when the pipe is either half full or full. When the pipe is filled 
to a depth of one quarter its diameter the velocity is about 
75 per cent of that when full or half full. 



260 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 





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SEWERS, ETC. 



261 



CAPACITY OF DRAIN TILE. 

Numbers of Acres which Tiles of the following Sizes and Inclinations will 
Drain when the Rain-fall does not exceed Half an Inch in Twenty- 
four Hours. 



Inclina- 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


8 


10 


12 


Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


tion. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


Tile. 


1 ft. in: 
















10 


6.6 
4.7 
4.2 
3.9 
3.4 


18.9 
13. 
11.4 
10.9 
9.4 














20 


26.8 
24. 
21.9 
19. 


47.2 
44.4 
41.2 
36.1 










25 


66.2 
61.5 
53.3 








30 


126.4 
109.6 






40 


190.5 




50 


3. 


8.4 


17. 


30.4 


47.7 


98. 


170.4 


269. 


60 


2.7 


7.6 


15.6 


29.1 


43.4 


90. 


156. 


246. 


70 


2.5 


6.9 


14.5 


26.5 


39.9 


83. 


144.4 


228.1 


80 


2.3 


6.5 


13.4 


23.6 


37.2 


77. 


135. 


213. 


90 


2.2 


6.1 


12.6 


23.1 


35. 


72.5 


127. 


200.5 


100 


2. 


5.7 


11.9 


21.2 


33.1 


69.2 


120.6 


190.5 


isa 


1.6 


4.5 


9.5 


19.2 


26.6 


56. 


97.3 


154.4 


200 




3.9 


8.2 


15.2 


22.8 


48. 


83.9 


132.5 


250 




3.5 


7.5 


13.4 


20.4 


43.4 


74.4 


117. 


300 






6.9 


12.3 


18.4 


38.2 


65.5 


107. 


400 






5.9 
5.3 


10.6 
9.6 


16.5 
14.8 


34.6 
30.1 


60.3 
54. 


90.7 


500 






81.6 


600 






4.8 
4.1 


9. 
7.6 


13.3 
11.4 


28. 
24. 


48.6 
41.9 


74. 


800 






65. 


1,000 
1,500 
2,000 








6.7 


10.2 


21.2 


37.2 


56. 










8.7 


17.6 


30.8 


47 














27. 


40.8 



Note. —One acre covered with water one-half inch in depth is equivalent 
to 1815 cubic feet, or 13,577 gallons. The capacity of the tile can be ex- 
pressed in cubic feet or gallons by multiplying the number of acres drained 
by either 1815 or 13,577. 

Excavation Tables, Useful for Finding the Cubical 
Contents of Excavations for Sewers, etc. 

The following tables on pages 262 to 267 give the cubical con- 
tents in yards for each foot in depth of various trenches and 
excavations. Example: Find the number of yards in a trench 
2 feet wide, 60 feet long, and 4 feet deep. On page 264 we find 
2 in the column of widths and follow this column down until we 
come to the length 60, where we find 4.4 or 4.4 cubic yards for 
each foot of depth; multiplying this by 4 gives the cubical con- 
tents of the trench as 17.6 cubic yards; if the trench to be figured 
is longer than 65 feet, divide it into two or more lengths and find 
the contents of each section separately. 



262 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



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EXCAVATION TABLES 



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264 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



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EXCAVATION TABLES 



265 



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266 



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268 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Tin Roofing. — Tin for flat roofs is usually put on with the 
ordinary flat lock joint, the sheets of tin being nailed under the 
lock. After the sheets are nailed and hooked together the hook 
joints are beaten down with a wooden mallet and then soldered. 
When it is desired to make some allowance for contraction 
and expansion the sheets should be fastened with tin clips nailed 

to the roof as shown by Fig. 
73; in this way there are no 
nails through the sheets of 
tin, but they are held in place 
by the clips. Fig. 74 shows 
a section of the joint. 

Standing seam roofs are also 

fastened with clips nailed to 

the sheathing and turned down 

75, 1, 2, 3, shows a standing 




Fig. -73. 
in the standing seam. 



/7 



Fig. 



seam roof in the different stages of construction. 



Fig. 74. 



Fig. 75, at 5, shows the joint turned down in a flat lock joint. 




Fig. 76. 



TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK 



269 



In standing seam roofs or any roof where the tin is laid in 
long lengths the cross-joints should be double-locked; this is 



Fig. 77. 

shown in Fig. 76, while Fig. 77 shows the ordinary single lock. 

Tin roofs are sometimes put on in lengths running with the 
slope of the roof, the strips of tin being turned up and laid 
between strips of wood, as 
shown by Fig. 78. This method 
is used to make an allowance 
for expansion and contraction. 

Figs. 79 and 80 show 
another method of putting a 
cap over the wooden strip ; this 




Fig. 78. 



makes a very good roof and all the tin is held in place by the 





Fig. 79. Fig. 80. 

clips under the wooden strips and the lock joint. The different 
stages of construction of the joint are shown in the two figures. 

Fig. 81 shows a method used for zinc and copper, while 
Fig. 82 shows how the cross-joints should be made at the ends 
of the sheet of metal. 

A rise or step should be made in the roof and the two sheets 
of metal turned and locked as shown in Fig. 82. In working 
zinc care must be exercised in making the bends and angles, 
for if they are made too sharp the metal is liable to crack. 

Wherever any metal roof covering finishes at a wall or any 
place where flashing is necessary the roof metal should be turned 
up 8 or 10 inches and securely fastened; then this metal should 
be counter-flashed and the flashing let into the joint of the 
wall at least 2 inches and well cemented. This is one part of 
the work that the tinner should pay particular attention to, so 
as to get everything water-tight. 



270 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



In all metal roofing the main points are to get the roof water- 
tight and to make provision for expansion and contraction. 




Fig. 81. 

Painting. — As soon as the roofing is in place and the joints 
all soldered, it should then be painted. Before painting the 
roof it should be gone over and all grease, oil, resin, etc., removed. 




Fig. 82. 

In no case should an acid flux for soldering be used on a tin 
roof; and in case an acid flux or a flux of chloride of zinc has been 
used, the places soldered should be washed thoroughly with 
a solution of common soda to prevent rusting. It must be an 
alkali wash to be effective, or a wash of benzine is good for remov- 
ing grease, etc. Red lead is usually used for painting tin work; 
it should be composed of 15 pounds of red lead to 1 gallon of raw 
linseed oil. 

Tin should be painted as soon as possible after being put in 
place, and if any rust shows it should be removed. If the tin is 
greasy, as it sometimes is when just from the factory, it should be 
washed all over with a wash of 1 pound of sal-soda in 6 quarts of 
water. Let the tin stand about half a day after applying this 



TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK 271 

wash, and then wash with clean water to remove any traces of the 
soda, then paint as soon as dry. 

To put on a Good Roof. — Roofs less than one-fifth pitch 
should be made with flat seams well locked together. The 
sheets of tin should be of the small size, 14 X 20, as the small 
sheets cause more seams and make a stiff roof which prevents 
buckling. Ordinarily nails are driven through the edge of the 
sheet under the lock, but in good work the sheets should be 
fastened with tin clips or cleats nailed to the roof. This leaves 
the tin of the roof free to expand and contract. Nails or cleats 
should be used about every six or seven inches. In soldering the 
seams great care should be used and time taken to "sweat " 
the solder well up into the lock of the seam. 

When working on a tin roof always wear rubber-soled shoes, 
such as tennis shoes; the nails in ordinary shoes have been the 
cause of many a leak in an otherwise perfect roof. The nail 
either punches a hole or scrapes off the tin coating so the iron is 
exposed, and rust does the rest. A bad habit some workmen 
have is sliding down a valley, or, if the roof is a fairly steep one, 
they will slide down the tin, the nails in their shoes scoring 
through the tin coating and exposing the iron plate. The author 
had to reject a tin roof which was perfect when put on but 
which was let stand several weeks without painting, and on 
which workmen were walking and sliding as mentioned until in 
some places the tin coating was all worn off the plate. 

A standing seam should not be used on a roof of less than one- 
fifth pitch, while on a steeper roof it may be tight for rain ; in the 
winter the snow and ice will cause the water to back up under the 
seam. 

As previously mentioned, acid should never be used for a flux 
in soldering on a tin roof; the acid works up into the lock, and 
coming in contact with the bare iron at the edge of the sheet 
will cause rusting. Resin is the only flux that should be used on 
a roof, and all surplus resin cleaned off before painting. 

Tin should always be painted on the under side to prevent 
rusting; and a layer of good rosin-sized paper is of great benefit, 
as it absorbs the moisture from the rooms below, and acts as a 
cushion to the tin. 

On fireproof or concrete buildings the tin is often fastened direct 
to the roof slab ; in such cases the tin should be given two coats 
of paint on the under side before laying. 



272 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

The wood sheathing under a tin roof should always be surfaced 
to an even thickness, and if matched sheathing is used it makes a 
better roof. If there are any loose knots or knot holes they should 
be covered with pieces of heavy tin before putting on the roof. 

Instructions for putting on a Tin Roof. — The follow- 
ing instructions for putting on a tin roof are taken by permis- 
sion from an article by W. B. Goddard, in " The Metal Worker/' 
May 12, 1906. 

" Taking it for granted that the roof has been properly con- 
structed, with a good pitch, covered with good, well dried sheath- 
ing boards, the gutters and valleys broad and generous, with a 
sharp pitch, so as to carry off the water just as rapidly as it 
falls, we come to the roofer's part of the work. Cover the roof 
first of all with a good waterproof paper, for paper of the right 
kind is just as good for a tin roof as lining is for a carpet. When 
I speak of waterproof paper I do not mean that it is put there to 
hide any leaks that may develop, for that would be poor work- 
manship. A leak should be stopped as soon as discovered, and 
nothing put in the way of its discovery, but the paper is put under 
the tin to protect the tin from gases and dampness from below 
or anything in the sheathing. A good waterproof paper will 
absorb no dampness, but will dry at once, while rosin-sized or 
other soft nonwaterproof papers absorb and hold dampness, and 
are therefore injurious to the tin and should never be used. If 
you cannot use a waterproof paper, use none at all. Better put 
your tin right on the plain boards. 

Now lay your tin either standing or flat seams, using IC 
for the body of the roof and IX for the gutters. Sheets 28 X 20- 
inch size should always be used when it can be in gutter work, 
so as to have as few seams as possible. The gutter gets the 
hardest use and should be the most carefully laid. All tin on 
roofs should be fastened down with cleats. A nail should never 
be driven through the body of the tin. When laid with cleats 
and properly soldered, the finished product is practically a solid 
sheet of tin covering the whole roof as securely as a blanket 
covers a bed. The expansion and contraction is all taken care 
of by the cleats, and if the cleats are properly applied the roof 
will never rattle. 

Nails should never be driven through Sheets. — If 
laid with nails driven through the sheets, the sheathing boards 
must be depended upon entirely for taking care of the expansion 



TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK 273 

and contraction, and the nail holes will invite leaks. When a 
roof is put on with single sheets of 14 X 20-inch tin, with two nails 
on the cross seam and three on the long seam, the sheet is 
fastened firmly to the boards, and if the boards shrink something 
has to give, and it is usually the seam. Besides, after turning 
the seam down over the nail head there is only from j$ to ^ 
inch from edge of nail head to outside of seam, and it is impossible 
to make the solder flow over and under that nail head to make 
a strong seam. The solder flows all around the nail head, but 
never over it, and in consequence there are five weak spots 
in every 14 X 20 sheet. A year or so ago I inspected a roof 
put on in this way, which leaked like a sieve. The roof, to all 
appearances, was well laid, liberally soldered, but leaked in 
every seam. The roofer, a man of experience and standing in 
his town, claimed that his solder had run in and completely 
covered the nail, making a tight seam. To prove to him his 
error I had him cut open a cross and long seam, and then he saw 
the mark of every nail ; the solder had run all around the nail, not 
under or over it, and less than ^ inch between edge of tin and 
nail head. The roofer looked at me and simply could say 
nothing. He afterward asked what he ought to have done, and 
I told him he should have fastened the tin on the roof with 
cleats. He said he had never in all his twenty-five years of ex- 
perience heard of putting a flat seam roof on with cleats, although 
he learned his trade in one of the best shops in New York City. 
That roof is soldered about every month and still leaks. Care 
should be taken in soldering all seams. Only rosin should be 
used and a liberal quantity of solder. The seams should be well 
soaked and the iron only hot enough to fuse the solder. 

Finishing and Painting. — The roof having been laid, it is 
now ready for the finishing work. Do not let the roof lay a day 
after it is done before it is painted. Never under any circum- 
stances let it rust. After having carefully rubbed off and 
removed all the rosin on the seams commence the last and by 
no means the least important part of the work. The paint used 
should be of the best quality of Prince's metallic or Venetian 
red, although the writer prefers the metallic. It should be 
bought ground in oil and thinned with pure linseed oil, adding a 
little litharge as a drier ; this last makes it set hard and grips the 
metal, so that a. few weeks after application it would be hard 
to scrape off. Keep the paint well stirred up and apply with a 



274 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

hand brush, using just enough paint to cover, and rubbing it well 
in, just as when painting wood. There is just as much art in 
painting a tin roof as there is in painting a wooden house. Do 
not provide a whitewash brush, with a 6-foot handle, so that the 
workman can stand up and not bend his back, and paint the 
roof the same as he would whitewash the side of a barn or fence, 
or put on a coat of coal tar, but have him get right down to good 
hard work, always bearing in mind " that what is worth doing at 
all is worth doing well." A roof painted this way is worth a half 
dozen painted as they are every day in the manner I have 
described — viz., as "Sambo whitewashes your cellar." The 
saving in the paint properly applied almost makes up for the 
extra labor. 

The roof is now finished and should be a job to be proud of. 
The roof should be painted again in a month or six weeks. If 
the roof is laid in the spring it should have its third coat in the 
fall, or if laid in the fall, the next spring, after which it should be 
painted every three years in the fall, as that is the best time, 
because the winter months are the hardest on a tin roof. The 
writer submits a copy of specifications gotten up by him for a 
New York architect. These have the indorsement of some of the 
best roofers, and have been asked for by many other architects 
interested in the best methods of applying tin roofs. 

Specification for Tin Roofing. — All of the tin used for 
roofing all parts of this building shall be iron sheets, which shall 
be stamped with the brand and thickness on each sheet. 

All tin used for standing seam roofing shall be IC thickness, 
14 X 20 inches, applied the 14-inch way, forming seams with a 
double lock. All tin for standing seam roofing shall be put 
together in rolls with the cross seams formed and soldered, same 
as specified for flat seam roofing. Use 1 X 28 X 20 for gutters. 

All standing seam roofing shall be fastened to roof with 2-inch 
wide tin cleats, spaced 8 inches apart, with cleats locked into 
seams, and fastening each cleat with two 1-inch barbed wire nails. 

All tin used for flat roofing shall be IC thickness, 14 X 20- 
inch size, and for gutters tin shall be IX thickness, 28 X 20- 
inch size, using flat seams, with f-inch lock. Flat seam roofing 
to be made up and soldered in the shop in long lengths, which 
must be painted on under side with one coat of paint and allowed 
to dry before applying to the roof. All flat seam roofing shall be 
fastened to roof with 2-inch wide flat tin cleats, spaced 8 inches 



TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK 275 

apart, with cleat locked into seams, and each cleat nailed to roof 
with two 1-inch barbed wire nails. When the rolls of tin are laid 
on roof the edges shall be turned up \ inch at right angles to roof, 
when the cleats shall be installed. Then another course shall be 
applied with ^-inch upturned edge, and then the adjoining 
edges shall be locked together, and the seam so formed shall be 
flattened to a rounded edge and well soldered and soaked in. 

All valleys shall be formed with flat seam roofing, using 
14 X 20-inch sheets laid in the narrow way, with cross seams put 
together and well soldered, same as specified for flat roofing. 

All flat seams throughout the roof, including such other 
parts as may need soldering to make perfectly water tight, 
shall be soldered with best grade of guaranteed half and half 
solder (half tin and half lead), using nothing but rosin as a. flux. 
Not less than 2 pounds of solder shall be used per square on 
standing seam roofing, and not less than 8 pounds per square 
on flat seam roofing, all to be well sweated into the joints. 

All rosin used in soldering must be carefully cleaned from all 
surfaces before any paint is applied to the tin. 

All tin shall be painted one coat on concealed or under sides, 
as heretofore specified, and two coats on all exposed surfaces; the 
first coat shall be given four weeks to dry before the second coat 
is applied. All paint shall be applied with hand brushes and 
well rubbed in. Litharge only shall be used as a drier. No 
patent drier or turpentine to be used. The first coat on upper 
surface shall be applied as soon as laid, and tin must not be 
permitted to rust before painting. 

To sum up, the requisites for a good tin roof are : 

1. Plate made on a good, lasting base, heavily coated; one 
that will stand just as well as those of fifty years ago. 

2. Careful preparation in the shop, using all the care possible 
before sending the plate to the roof. 

3. The best workmanship in laying; always using cleats. 
Never nail through the body of the sheet. Liberal use of solder, 
avoiding the use of too hot irons. Walk on roof as little as 
possible, and never with shoes in which the nails will do damage. 
Felt-soled shoes or rubbers should be worn. 

4. The utmost care in finishing and painting. 

Roofing Specifications. — The following specifications for 
tin roofing were prepared and issued by The National Association 
of Master Sheet Metal Workers, 



276 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

All tin used for roofing all parts of this building shall be 
X or Y or Z brand. No substitute for the above grade or brand 
will be allowed, and the same is to be purchased from the jobber 
or manufacturer in boxes. 

The sheets used for standing seam roofing shall be made up into 
long lengths in the shop. The cross seams shall be locked 
together and well soaked with solder. One coat of paint shall be 
applied to the under side before laying. 

If the sheets are laid singly the size shall be 14 X 20, painted 
one coat on the under side before laying. The sheets shall be 
fastened to the sheathing boards by cleats, using three to each 
sheet, two on the long side, one on the short side. Two 1-inch 
barbed wire nails to each cleat. 

All seams, whether locked or standing, shall be made accord- 
ing to the accompanying diagrams. No nails shall be driven 
through the sheets. 

All tin used for standing seam roofing shall be applied the 
narrow way, fastened to the roof with cleats spaced 8 inches apart. 
Cleats locked into the seam and fastened with two 1-inch barbed 
wire nails to each cleat. 

All flat seam roofing shall be applied the narrow way, fastened 
to the roof with cleats spaced 8 inches apart. Cleats locked into 
the seam and fastened to the roof with two 1-inch barbed wire 
nails to each cleat. 

The edges for standing seam roofing shall be turned up not 
less than 1| inches at right angles to the roof, when the cleats 
shall be installed. Then another course with l+-inch edge turned 
up. Adjoined edges shall be locked together, and the seams so 
formed shall be flattened to a rounded edge. 

The valleys shall be formed with flat seams, using sheets the 
narrow way. 

All solder used on this roof shall be of the best grade and 
guaranteed one-half and one-half solder (one-half tin and one- 
half lead), using nothing but rosin as a flux. Solder to be well 
sweated into all seams and joints. 

Surface of tin to be carefully cleaned from all rosin before 
paint is applied. 

All tin shall be painted one coat on the under side and two 
coats on all exposed surfaces. The first coat shall be applied to 
the upper side immediately after laying with a hand brush, well 
rubbed in. The second coat shall be applied in a similar manner 



TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK 277 

in not less than two weeks after the first coat has been put on. 
All paint used shall be of the best metallic brown mixed with pure 
linseed oil, japan only as a drier. No patent drier or turpentine 
shall be used. 

No unnecessary walking over the roof or using the same for 
storage of other material shall be allowed. When necessary to 
walk over the roof, care must be exercised not to break the coating 
of the tin. Particular care and attention must be given to the 
laying of the gutters, so that, when finished, there shall be sufficient 
pitch to prevent any water standing therein. 

No deviation from these specifications shall be made. They 
must be carried out in every particular. A first class roof only 
will be accepted. 

When paper is specified the same is to be of the waterproof 
kind. 

Explanation of Diagrams in Fig. 84. — Flat seam roofing 
when the sheets are laid in strips or one at a time. 

AA shows sheets with edge turned ready for locking. 

B, sheet or strip laid with cleat locked over turned up edge. 
The cleat is lh inches wide. Two 1-inch barbed wire nails are 



Fig. 83. Weak point of Seams nailed through Sheets. 

driven through the cleat into the roof sheathing. These nails 
must be driven close as possible to the edge of the sheet, other- 
wise the cleat will have too much play. Cleats must be spaced 
8 inches apart. 

C, seam or joint completed by locking the two edges A and B 
together and soldering. The cleat is not shown. 

Standing Seam Roofing. — DD, edges of sheets or strips 
turned up at right angles to the roof not less than 1£ and 1 \ inches 
respectively. 

E, sheet or strip laid with cleat locked over upturned edge. 
Cleats spaced 8 inches apart and fastened with two 1-inch barbed 
wire nails. 

F, opposite sheet or strip laid in place. 





Fig. 84. Method of making Flat and Standing Seams. 



TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK 



279 




Fig. 85. Frame for painting Sheets of Tin. 



G, edges of the two sheets or strips locked together. Cleat not 
shown. 

H, second operation of locking the edges. 
J, the standing seam complete. 

Diagrams for laying flat and standing seam roofing as explained 
in the foregoing specifications. 

Practical Hints for Tinners. — Look over the roof before 
starting to lay the tin, and if there is anything wrong with the 
slope of the gutters or the 
quality of the sheathing- 
boards, etc., report it to 
the architect before start- 
ing the work. Trouble 
with the roof arising from 
these causes may later be 
blamed on you. 

See that the downspouts 
and gutters are designed to be of ample capacity for heavy rains. 
Keep a record of the roofs you put on and see that they are 
kept painted from time to time, and 
the gutters and valleys cleaned out. 

Move the fire-pot about from time 
to time to prevent continuous walking 
to and fro in one place. 

Experience has shown that there 
is galvanic action between tin and 
copper, or galvanized iron 
and copper. If possible, avoid 
joining these metals together. 
Frame for Painting 
Sheets of Tin. — A handy 
frame and guide for painting 
single sheets of tin to within 
a short distance of the edge 
can be made as shown by Figs. 85 and 86. The sheet is laid in the 
frame, and the guide — a shallow box — made as shown by 
Fig. 86, is placed in the frame over the tin to be painted ; thus 
by painting inside the box the sheet of tin is painted over 
the whole surface except a margin covered by the box frame, 
as shown by Fig. 87. 

To SCRIBE OFF TlN PROJECTIONS FOR CUTTING. — To line off 




Fig. 86. Guide for protecting Edges. 



280 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



the tin projection of a roof or gutter cap so the tin will have the 
same projection at all points, take a block of wood as shown at 
A, Fig. 88, and nail on a strip of tin as B; let the block rest against 
the cap as shown and turn the end of the strip of tin down to 
scratch at the desired point to cut the tin. 

Cut the end of the strip of tin to form a point so it will scratch 
the tin and run the block along the cap, keeping 
the strip of tin pressed down so it will scribe the 
tin for cutting. 

Expansion Joint in Copper Gutter. — Fig. 
shows how an expansion joint can be made in 




Fig. 87. The 
painted Sheet. 




Fig. 88. Scrihhing Block. 



a copper gutter to take care of the lenial expansion and contrac- 
tion of the gutter. 

The joint should be made at the highest point of the gutter, so 
the water will run away from the joint in both directions as indi- 
cated by the arrows. 
The joint is made 
by locking and sol- 
dering an end in 
each section of the 
gutter and butting 
the two ends to- 
gether as shown. 
The ends are then 
covered with a cap 
as shown at A and B. 
The ends should 
extend above the 
cap of the cornice, 
so the water would 
run over the cornice 
cap before running 
over the joint. 
On the top edge of the ends turn a lock or hook as shown, then 
make a cap with a lock turned on each side so it can be slipped 




Fig. 89. Expansion Joint in Gutter. 



TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK 



281 



over the ends and engage with the locks on the ends of the gutter. 
At the top as at B this cap must be flared out to lay flat on the roof 
as shown and fastened. 
There must be space enough 
left between the two sec- 
tions of gutter to allow for 
all expansion as shown at A . 

Water Spreader. — 
When a downspout dis- 
charges onto a roof as 
shown by Fig. 90, it is 
advisable to make a flaring 
corrugated pan as shown 
and place under the shoe 
of the spout, so that the 
water will be spread over 

the roof and not have a large quantity of water running down 
the roof at one place. 

Guide for Notching Corners of Tin Sheets. — A frame or 
guide for notching the corners of 
tin sheets can be made with a piece 
of stiff sheet metal bent as shown 
by Fig. 91. 

Rosin Spreader. — To spread 
the powdered rosin along the joint 




Fig. 90. Water Spreader. 




Fig. 91 



Guide for notching Corners of 
Tin Sheets. 



Fig. 92. Rosin Spreader. 



to be soldered a tool such as shown by Fig. 92 can be used to 
advantage. A piece of tin is turned to the shape of a funnel 
making the hole at the point just large enough for the rosin to 
run through. 



282 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




Fig. 93. 



Ventilators. — There are a number of various kinds and 

styles of ventilators on the market, the 

majority of which are sold under patent. 

Nearly all of the various ventilators 

V$* give good satisfaction, but there is one, 

known as The Emerson Ventilator, 

NL shown by Fig. 93, and which is just 
as efficient as any on the market, 
and can be made by any one, as the 
patent on it has expired. This venti- 
lator gives good satisfaction either for 
ventilation purposes or for smoke, as its 
shape insures an upward draft no matter 
which way the wind is blowing. 

Tin-plate. — Tin-plate is sheet iron, or steel coated with 
tin. Terne-plate is a plate of sheet iron coated with tin and 
lead and is inferior in quality to the tin-plate. The best plates 
are those known to be made by the " charcoal " or " old " 
process. 

Plates coated with tin are known as " bright tin," while those 
coated with a mixture of tin and lead are known as " terne " 
or " dull " plates. 

Plates are made in two weights, IC and IX. The IC is 
No. 30 gauge and weighs five pounds to the square foot; the 
IX is No. 28 gauge and weighs .625 pounds per foot. 

Imperfect sheets are called " wasters," and the letter W 
on a box after the IC or IX indicates that the box contains 
imperfect sheets. 



SOLDERS TO USE FOR DIFFERENT METALS. 



Material to be Soldered. 


Tin 


Lead 


Brass, copper, iron, 


and zinc 


Pewter 




Brass ; . . 


Copper and iron 



Solder to Use. 



Soft, coarse or fine. 
Soft, coarse. 
Soft, coarse. 
Pewterers' or fusible. 
Spelter, soft. 
Spelter, soft or hard. 



Solder may be tested by melting, when, if a great many 
bright spots appear floating on the top, it must be considered 
too soft or fine, while if the spots are totally absent, it con- 
tains too much lead. Tin spots about three-eighths of an 
inch in diameter indicate good solder. 



TIN AND SHEET METAL WORK 



283 



Fluxes are used to aid in the fusion of solder and to clean 
the surface of the metals to be soldered. Those commonly 
used and the metals to which they are applied are as follows: 



Flux. 



Rosin 

Tallow 

Sal ammoniac 

Muriatic or hydrochloric 

acid 

Chloride of zinc 

Borax 



Metals to be Joined. 



Lead, tin, or tinned metals. 
Copper, iron, and lead. 
Dirty zinc, copper, and brass. 

Clean zinc, copper, tin, or tinned metals. 
Lead, zinc, tin tubes, and tinned metals. 
Iron, steel, copper, brass, gold, and platinum. 



COMPOSITION 


AND 


FUSING-POINTS OF SOLDER. 






Hard. 


Soft. 


Fus- 


Kind. 


Zinc. 


Cop- 
per. 


Silver. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bis- 
muth. 


mg- 
point. 




1 
2 
1 
2 












700° 




3 

1 
2 
1 
1 
1 










550° 
















4 
3 

2 
















































1 
1 
2 
1 
3 
4 


3 
2 
3 

1 
2 
4 


...... 


480° 










441 










400° 










370° 










330° 























To Solder Aluminum. — The„solder consists of aluminum 5 
parts, antimony 5 parts, and zinc 90 parts. To make it harder, 
use a little more antimony and a little less zinc. The following 
is the process of making the solder and the method of using it: 

The aluminum is first melted in a pot; the zinc is then 
added, and when this is melted, the antimony is added. The 
metal is then thoroughly puddled with sal ammoniac. When 
the surface of the metal is quite clear and white, it should 
be poured into sticks ready for use, the cinders being first 
removed. 

To make joints in aluminum with this solder, the two or more 
surfaces to be joined should be cleaned, either by scraping or 
by using acid; and the surfaces should be well coated with the 



284 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



solder, special care being taken that the solder penetrates into 
the surface of the metal without burning it. The parts to be 
joined should then be placed together and kept in close con- 
tact. Heat should now be applied till the solder melts, any 
surplus that squeezes out being wiped off. 

Table showing quantity of 14"X20" tin required to cover a 
given number of square feet with flat-seam tin roofing. A 
sheet of 14" X 20" with \" edges measures, when edged or folded, 
13" X 19", or 247 square inches. In the following all fractional 
parts of a sheet are counted a full sheet. 



Num- 


Sheets 


Num- 


Sheets 


Num- 


Sheets 


Num- 


Sheets 


ber of 


Re- 


ber of 


Re- 


ber of 


Re- 


ber of 


Re- 


Sq. Ft. 


quired. 


Sq. Ft. 


quired. 


Sq. Ft. 


quired. 


Sq. Ft. 


quired. 


100 


59 


330 


193 


560 


327 


780 


455 


110 


65 


340 


199 


570 


333 


790 


461 


120 


70 


350 


205 


580 


339 


800 


467 


130 


76 


360 


210 


590 


344 


810 


473 


140 


82 


370 


216 


600 


350 


820 


479 


150 


88 


380 


222 


610 


356 


830 


484 


160 


94 


390 


228 


620 


362 


840 


490 


170 


100 


400 


234 


630 


368 


850 


496 


180 


105 


410 


240 


640 


374 


860 


502 


190 


111 


420 


245 


650 


379 


870 


508 


200 


117 


430 


251 


660 


385 


880 


514 


210 


123 


440 


257 


670 


391 


890 


519 


220 


129 


450 


263 


680 


397 


900 


525 


230 


135 


460 


269 


690 


403 


910 


531 


240 


140 


470 


275 


700 


409 


920 


537 


250 


146 


480 


280 


710 


414 


930 


543 


260 


152 


490 


286 


720 


420 


940 


549 


270 


158 


500 


292 


730 


426 


950 


554 


280 


164 


510 


298 


740 


432 


960 


560 


290 


170 


520 


304 


750 


438 


970 


566 


300 


175 


530 


309 


760 


444 


980 


572 


310 


181 


540 


315 


770 


449 


990. 


578 


320 


187 


550 


321 











1000 square feet, 583 sheets. 
approximately 192 square feet. 



A box of 112 sheets 14"X20" will cover 



APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS. 

Per Square of 100 Square Feet of Beaded Siding, Weatherboard Siding, 
Plain Brick, Rockface Brick and Rockface Stone Siding. 



Gauge. 


Beaded Siding. 


Weatherboard 
Siding. 


Plain Brick, 

Rockface Brick and 

Rockface Stone. 




Painted. 


Galvan- 
ized. 


Painted. 


Galvanized. 


Painted. 


Galvanized. 


28 
27 
26 
24 


Lbs. 

70 

76 

83 
110 


Lbs. 

85 

91 

98 
125 


Lbs. 

75 

82 

89 
119 
148 


Lbs. 

91 

98 
106 
135 
164 


Lbs. 
64 
71 

77 


Lbs. 
78 
85 
91 


22 







SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 285 



U. S. STANDARD GAUGE. (For Sheet and Plate Iron and Steel.) 
(Copy.) (Public— Number 137.) 

An act establishing a standard gauge for sheet and plate iron and steel. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled. That for the purpose of securing 
uniformity the following is established as the only standard gauge for sheet 
and plate iron and steel in the United States of America, namely: 





Thict 


ness. 


Weight. 




Number 

of 
Gauge. 


Approximate 


Approximate 


Weight per 1 


Weight per 


Number 

of 
Gauge. 


Thickness in 


Thickness in 


Square Foot 


Square Foot 


Fractions of 


Decimal Parts 


in Ounces 


in Pounds 




an Inch. 


of an Inch. 


Avoirdupois. 


Avoirdupois. 




0000000 


1/2 


.5 


320 


20 


0000000 


000000 


15/32 


.46875 


300 


18.75 


000000 


00000 


7/16 


.4375 


280 


17.5 


00000 


0000 


13/32 


.40625 


260 


16.25 


0000 


000 


3/8 


.375 


240 


15 


000 


00 


11/32 


.34375 


220 


13.75 


00 





5/16 


.3125 


200 


12.5 





1 


9/32 


.28125 


180 


11.25 


1 


2 


17/64 


.265625 


170 


10625 


2 


3 


1/4 


.25 


160 


10 


3 


4 


15/64 


.234375 


150 


9.375 


4 


5 


7/32 


.21875 


140 


8.75 


5 


6 


13/64 


.203125 


130 


8.125 • 


6 


7 


3/16 


.1875 


120 


7.5 


7 


8 


11/64 


.171875 


110 


6.875 


8 


9 


5/32 


. 15625 


100 


6.25 


9 


10 


9/64 


. 140625 


90 


5.625 


10 


11 


V8 


.125 


80 


5 


11 


12 


7/64 


. 109375 


70 


4.375 


12 


13 


3/32 


.09375 


60 


3 75 


13 


14 


5/64 


.078125 


50 


3 . 125 


14 


15 


9/128 


0703125 


45 


2.8125 


15 


16 


1/16 


.0625 


40 


2 5 


16 


17 


9/160 


.05625 


36 


2.25 


17 


18 


1/20 


.05 


32 


2 


18 


19 


7/160 


.04375 


28 


1.75 


19 


20 


3/80 


.0375 


24 


1.5 


20 


21 


11/320 


.034375 


22 


1.375 


21 


22 


1/32 


.03125 


20 


1.25 


22 


23 


9/320 


.028125 


18 


1.125 


23 


24 


1/40 


.025 


16 


1 


24 


25 


7/320 


.021875 


14 


.875 


25 


26 


3/160 


.01875 


12 


.75 


26 


27 


11/640 


.0171875 


11 


.6875 


27 


28 


1/64 


.015625 


10 


.625 


28 


29 


9/640 


.0140625 


9 


.5625 


29 


30 


1/80 


.0125 


8 


.5 


30 


31 


7/640 


.0109375 


7 


.4375 


31 


32 


13/1280 


.01015625 


6* 


.40625 


32 


33 


3/320 


.009375 


6 


.375 


33 


34 


11/1280 


.00859375 


5* 


.34375 


34 


35 


5/640 


.0078125 


5 


.3125 


35 


36 


9/1280 


.00703125 


4£ 


. 28125 


36 


37 


17/2560 


.006640625 


4i 


.265625 


37 


38 


1/160 


.00625 


4 


.25 


38 



And on and after July first, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, the sameand 
no other shall be used in determining duties and taxes levied by the United 
States of America on sheet and plate iron and steel. But this act shall not 
be construed to increase duties upon any articles which may be imported. 

Sec. 2. That the Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and required 
to prepare suitable standards in accordance herewith. 

Sec. 3. That in the practical use and application of the standard gauge 
hereby established a variation of two and one-half per cent either way may 
be allowed. Approved March 3, 1893. 



286 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Standing Seam Tin Roofing. — Table showing quantity of 
20"X28" tin required to cover a given number of square feet 
with standing seam roofing. The standing seams and the locks 
on a steep roof require 2§" off the width and f " off the length 
of the sheet; fractional parts are counted as a full sheet. A 
sheet will cover 475 square inches. 



Num- 


Sheets 


Num- 


Sheets 


Num- 


Sheets 


Num- 


Sheets 


ber of 


Re- 


ber of 


Re- 


ber of 


Re- 


ber of 


Re- 


Sq. Ft. 


quired. 


Sq. Ft. 


quired. 


Sq. Ft. 
560 


quired. 
173 


Sq. Ft. 
780 


quired. 


100 


31 


330 


100 


237 


110 


34 


340 


103 


570 


176 


790 


240 


120 


37 


350 


106 


580 


182 


800 


243 


130 


40 


360 


109 


590 


185 


810 


246 


140 


43 


370 


112 


600 


184 


820 


249 


150 


46 


380 


115 


610 


135 


830 


252 


160 


49 


390 


118 


620 


188 


840 


255 


170 


52 


400 


122 


630 


191 


850 


258 


180 


55 


410 


125 


640 


194 


860 


261 


190 


58 


420 


128 


650 


197 


870 


264 


200 


61 


430 


131 


660 


200 


880 


267 


210 


64 


440 


134 


670 


203 


890 


270 


220 


67 


450 


137 


680 


206 


900 


273 


230 


70 


460 


140 


690 


207 


910 


276 


240 


73 


470 


143 


700 


212 


920 


279 


250 


76 


480 


147 


710 


215 


930 


282 


260 


79 


490 


149 


720 


218 


940 


285 


270 


82 


500 


152 


730 


221 


950 


288 


280 


85 


510 


158 


740 


224 


960 


291 


290 


88 


520 


161 


750 


228 


970 


294 


300 


91 


530 


164 


760 


231 


980 


297 


310 


94 


540 


167 


770 


234 


990 


300 


320 


97 


550 


170 











1000 square feet 303 sheets. A full box 112 sheets 20"X28" will cover 
approximately 370 square feet. 

The common sizes of tin plates are 10X14" and multiples 

of that measure. The sizes most generally used are 14X20" 

and 20X28". 

WEIGHT OF SHEETS PER SQUARE FOOT. 



Black. 
United States Standard Weights. 


Galvanized. 
National Association of Galvanized 
Sheet-iron Manufacturers' Weights. 


Num- 
ber. 


Pounds. 


Num- 
ber. 


Pounds. 


Num- 
ber. 


Ounces. 


Num- 
ber. 


Ounces. 


10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 


5.625 

5 

4.375 

3.75 

3.125 

2.8125 

2.5 

2.25 

2 

1.75 

1.50 


21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 


1.375 
1.25 
1.125 
1 

.875 

.75 

.6875 

.625 

.5625 

.5 


10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 


92* 
82* 
72* 
62* 
52* 
47* 
42* 
38* 
34* 
30* 
26* 


21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 


24* 
22* 
20* 
18* 
16* 
14* 
13* 
12* 
11* 
10* 



SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 287 



COST OF TIN ROOFING PER SQUARE AND PER SQUARE FOOT 

The following table shows the cost per square and per square foot of tin 
roofing, laid with 14 X 20 tin, with tin at any price from $4 to $10 per box. 
The first column contains the price per box of tin; the second column shows 
the cost of tin per square (100 square feet) of surface, and the third column 
shows the cost of tin per square foot of surface. 





Flat Seam 


Roofing — 


Cost with 14X20 Tin. 




Price of 
Tin per 


Cost per 
Square of 
Flat Roof 


Cost per 
Square 


Price of 
Tin per 


Cost per 
Square of 
Flat Roof 


Cost per 
Square 


Box. 


14X20 Tin. 


Foot. 


Box. 


14X20 Tin. 


Foot. 


$4.25 


$2.21 


.0221 


$8.25 


$4.29 


.0420 


4.50 


2.34 


.0234 


8.50 


4.42 


.0442 


4.75 


2.47 


.0247 


8.75 


4.55 


.0455 


5.00 


2.60 


.0260 


9.00 


4.68 


.0468 


5.25 


2.73 


.0273 


9.25 


4.81 


.0481 


5.50 


2.86 


.0286 


9.50 


4.94 


.0494 


5.75 


2.99 


.0299 


9.75 


5.07 


.0507 


6.00 


3.12 


.0312 


10.00 


5.20 


.0520 


6.25 


3.25 


.0325 


10.25 


5.33 


.0533 


6.50 


3.38 


.0338 


10.50 


5.46 


.0546 


6.75 


3.51 


.0351 


10.75 


5.59 


.0559 


7.00 


3.64 


.0364 


11.00 


5.72 


.0572 


7.25 


3.77 


.0377 


11.25 


5.85 


.0585 


7.50 


3.90 


.0390 


11.50 


5.98 


.0598 


7.75 


4.03 


.0403 


11.75 


6.11 


.0611 


8.00 


4.16 


.0416 


12.00 


6.24 


.0624 



Standing Seam Roofing — Cost with 14X20 Tin. 





Cost per 






Cost per 




Price of 
Tin per 


Square of 
Standing 


Cost per 
Square 


Price of 
Tin per 


Square of 
Standing 


Cost per 
Square 


Box. 


Roof with 


Foot. 


Box. 


Roof with 


Foot. 




14X20 Tin. 






14X20 Tin. 




$4.25 


$2.37 


.0237 


$7.25 


$4.03 


.0403 


4.50 


2.51 


.0251 


7.50 


4.17 


.0417 


4.75 


2.65 


.0265 


7.75 


4.31 


.0431 


5.00 


2.79 


.0279 


8.00 


4 45 


.0445 


5.25 


2.93 


.0293 


8.25 


4.59 


.0459 


5.50 


3.06 


.0306 


8.50 


4.73 


.0473 


5.75 


3.20 


.0320 


8.75 


4.87 


.0487 


6.00 


3.34 


.0334 


9 00 


5.01 


.0501 


6.25 


3.48 


.0348 


9.25 


5.15 


.0515 


6.50 


3.62 


.0362 


9.50 


5.29 


.0529 


6.75 


3.76 


.0376 


9.75 


5.43 


.0543 


7.00 


3.90 


.0390 


10.00 


5.57 


.0557 



288 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



COST OF TIN 


ROOFING PER SQUARE — {Continued) 




Flat seam 


Roofing — 


Cost with 20X28 Tin 




Price of 
Tin per 


Cost per 
Square of 
Flat Roof 


Cost per 
Square 


Price of 

Tin per 


Cost per 
Square of 
Flat Roof 


Cost per 
Square 


Box. 


20X28 Tin. 


Foot. 


Box. 


20X28 Tin. 


Foot. 


$8.00 


$2.01 


.0201 


$16.00 


$4.00 


.0401 


8.50 


2.13 


.0213 


16.50 


4.13 


.0413 


9.00 


2.26 


.0226 


17.00 


4.26 


.0426 


9.50 


2.38 


.0238 


17.50 


4.38 


.0438 


10.00 


2.51 


.0251 


18.00 


4.51 


.0451 


10.50 


2.63 


.0263 


18.50 


4.63 


.0463 


11.00 


2.76 


.0276 


19.00 


4.76 


.0476 


11.50 


2.88 


.0288 


19.50 


4.88 


.0488 


12.00 


3.00 


.0300 


20.00 


5.01 


.0501 


12.50 


3.13 


.0313 


20.50 


5.13 


.0513 


13.00 


3.25 


.0325 


21.00 


5.26 


.0526 


13.50 


3.38 


.0338 


21.50 


5.38 


.0538 


14.00 


3.50 


.0350 


22.00 


5.51 


.0551 


14.50 


3.63 


.0363 


22.50 


5.63 


.0563 


15.00 


3.75 


.0375 


23.00 


5.76 


.0576 


15.50 


3.88 


.0388 









Standing Seam Roofing — Cost 7 


svith 20X28 Tin. 




Cost per 






Cost per 




Price of 

Tin per 

Box. 


Square of 
Standing 

Seam 

Roof with 

20X28 Tin. 


Cost per 

Square 

Foot. 


Price of 

Tin per 

Box. 


Square of 
Standing 

Seam 

Roof with 

20X28 Tin. 


Cost per 
Square 
Foot. 


$8.00 


$2.15 


.0215 


$16.50 


$4.42 


.0442 


8.00 


2.28 


.0228 


17.00 


4.56 


.0456 


9.00 


2.41 


.0241 


17.50 


4.69 


.0469 


9.50 


2.55 


.0255 


18.00 


4.82 


.0482 


10.00 


2.68 


.0268 


18.50 


4.96 


.0496 


10.50 


2.82 


.0282 


19.00 


5.09 


.0509 


11.00 


2.95 


.0295 


19.50 


5.23 


.0523 


11.50 


3.09 


.0309 


20.00 


5.36 


.0536 


12.00 


3.21 


.0321 


20.50 


5.49 


.0549 


12.50 


3.35 


.0335 


21.00 


5.63 


.0563 


13.00 


3.48 


.0348 


21.50 


5.76 


.0576 


13.50 


3.62 


.0362 


22.00 


5.90 


.0590 


14.00 


3.75 


.0375 


22.50 


6.03 


.0603 


14.50 


3.89 


.0389 


23.00 


6.17 


.0617 


15.00 


4.02 


.0402 


23.50 


6.30 


.0630 


15.50 


4.15 


.0415 


24.00 


6.43 


.0643 


16.00 


4.29 


.0429 









SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 289 
WEIGHT OF BLACK PLATES BEFORE BEING COATED. 



Black plates before coating 
weigh per 112 sheets. . . . 



IC 14X20 



Lbs. 
95 to 100 



IC 20X28 



Lbs. 
190 to 200 



IX 14X20 



Lbs. 
125 to 130 



IX 20 X 28 



Lbs. 
250 to 260 



NET WEIGHT PER BOX TIN PLATES. 
Basis 14X20, 112. 



Trade term 


80-lb 


85-lb 


90-lb 


95-lb 


100-lb 


IC 


IXL 


IX 


IXX 


IXXX 


IXXXX 


Weight per box 
























lbs. . . 




80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


107 


128 


135 


155 


175 


195 


Nearest 


wire- 




gauge No 


33 


32 


31 


31 


30 


30 


28 


28 


27 


26 


25 


Size of 


Sheets 
























Sheets. 


Box. 
























10 X14 


225 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


107 


128 


135 


155 


175 


195 


14 X20 


112 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


107 


128 


135 


155 


175 


195 


20 X28 


112 


160 


170 


180 


190 


200 


214 


256 


270 


310 


350 


390 


10 X20 


225 


114 


121 


129 


136 


143 


153 


183 


193 


221 


250 


279 


11 X22 


225 


1.38 


147 


156 


164 


172 


184 


222 


234 


268 


302 


337 


1HX23 


225 


151 


161 


170 


179 


189 


202 


242 


255 


293 


331 


368 


12 X12 


225 


82 


87 


93 


98 


103 


110 


132 


139 


159 


180 


201 


12 X24 


112 


82 


87 


93 


98 


103 


no 


132 


139 


159 


180 


201 


13 X13 


225 


97 


103 


109 


115 


121 


129 


154 


163 


187 


211 


235 


13 X26 


112 


97 


103 


109 


115 


121 


129 


154 


163 


187 


211 


235 


14 X14 


225 


112 


119 


126 


133 


140 


150 


179 


189 


217 


245 


273 


14 X28 


112 


112 


119 


126 


133 


140 


150 


179 


189 


217 


245 


273 


15 X15 


225 


129 


137 


145 


153 


161 


172 


206 


217 


249 


281 


313 


16 X16 


225 


146 


155 


165 


174 


183 


196 


234 


247 


283 


320 


357 


17 X17 


225 


165 


175 


186 


196 


206 


221 


264 


279 


320 


361 


403 


18 X18 


112 


93 


98 


104 


110 


116 


124 


148 


156 


179 


202 


226 


19 X19 


112 


103 


110 


116 


122 


129 


138 


165 


174 


200 


226 


251 


20 X20 


112 


114 


121 


129 


136 


143 


153 


183 


193 


221 


250 


279 


21 X21 


112 


126 


134 


142 


150 


158 


169 


202 


213 


244 


276 


307 


22 X22 


112 


138 


147 


156 


164 


172 


184 


221 


234 


268 


302 


337 


23 X23 


112 


151 


161 


170 


179 


189 


202 


242 


255 


293 


331 


368 


24 X24 


112 


164 


175 


185 


195 


204 


220 


263 


278 


319 


360 


401 


26 X26 


112 


193 


205 


217 


229 


241 


258 


309 


326 


374 


422 


471 


16 X20 


112 


91 


97 


103 


109 


114 


122 


146 


154 


177 


200 


223 


14 X31 


112 


124 


132 


140 


147 


155 


166 


198 


209 


240 


271 


302 


111X22| 


112 
112 

112 


73 

67 
73 


78 
71 

77 


82 
76 

82 


87 
80 

87 


91 

84 
91 


98 
90 
97 












131 X 17* 












131X191 












13£X19£ 


112 
112 


75 
76 


80 
81 


85 

86 


89 
90 


94 
95 


100 
102 












13lXl9f 












14 X18f 


124 
120 
112 
112 
112 
112 


83 

83 
84 
88 
89 
102 


88 
88 
89 
94 
95 
108 


93 
98 
95 
99 
100 
115 


98 
98 
100 
105 
106 
121 


103 
103 
105 
110 
111 
127 


110 
110 
112 
118 
119 
136 












14 X191 












14 X21 












14 X22 












14 X221 












15^X23 

























290 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT, GAUGE, ETC., OF BRIGHT COKE FINISH TIN PLATE, 
HEATER PIPE SIZES. 



Gauge. 


Thickness. 


Size. 


Sheets. 


Net Weight. 


30 


IC 


20X23 


112 


176 


30 


IC 


20X26 


112 


199 


30 


IC 


20X291 


112 


225 


30 


IC 


20X32£ 


112 


248 


30 


IC 


20X35| 


112 


273 


30 


IC 


20X38^ 


112 


294 


28 


IX 


20X23 


112 


222 


28 


IX 


20X26 


112 


251 


28 


IX 


20X29* 


112 


284 


28 


IX 


20X32* 


112 


313 


28 


IX 


20X35f 


112 


345 


28 


IX 


20X381 


112 


371 



STANDARD WEIGHTS AND GAUGES, D PLATES 



Trade term 


DC 


DX 


DXX 


DXXX 


DXXXX 


Actual weight, per 












sq. ft. lbs 


.637 


.826 


.962 


1.10 


1.23 


Nearest equivalent 












in I plates 


IX 


IXXX 


IXXXXX 


IXXXXXX 


IXXXXXXX 


12^X17, 100 sheets, 












weight per box, 












lbs 


94 


122 


142 


162 


182 


17X25, 50 sheets, 












weight per box, 












lbs 


94 


122 


142 


162 


182 


15X21, 100 sheets, 




weight per box, 












lbs 


140 


181 


211 


241 


271 



HOW TO ESTIMATE ON QUANTITY AND COST OF 
CORRUGATED SHEETS. 

First, select the best lengths of sheets that will fit the space you 
intend covering, not forgetting the end laps. 

On siding, a one-inch or two-inch end lap is sufficient, but on 
roofing it varies from three to six inches, according to pitch of roof. 

Our common 2^-inch corrugated sheets will lay 24 inches wide 
with a side lap of one corrugation, but the selling measurement is 
26 inches wide. 
A 6-foot sheet will measure 13 square feet and lay 12 square feet. 

tt it It (( tt it irj tt tt it it -IA It it 

it o tt it tt tt 171 " " " " lfi " " 

tt 9 tt tt tt tt 19 i tt tt tt tt 18 tt tt 

it iq tt it it tt 912 " tt tt tt 20 " " 

In the above table, end laps are not considered. 

You make your own allowance for end laps. 

The extreme length of corrugated sheets is 10 feet. 



SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 291 



NUMBER AND WEIGHT OF CORRUGATED IRON AND 
STEEL SHEETS. 



Number of Corrugated Sheets 


in One Square (100 Square Feet). 




3-Inch Corruga- 


2^-Inch Corruga- 


lj-lnch Corruga- 




tions. Width 


tions. Width 


tions. Width 


Length of 


(flat) 28 Inches. 


(flat) 28 Inches. 


(flat) 28 Inches. 


Sheet, Inches. 


Width (after cor- 


Width (after cor- 


Width (after cor- 




rugating) 26 


rugating) 26 


rugating) 25 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


72 


7.692 


7.692 


8.000 


84 


6.593 


6.593 


6.857 


96 


5.769 . 


5.769 


6.000 


108 


5.128 


5.128 


5.333 


120 


4.616 


4.616 


4.800 



Weight of Corrugated Sheets per Square or 100 Square Feet (Pounds). 





Black. 


Galvanized. 


.a 


3-Inch 


2j-Inch 


lflnch 


3-Inch 


2^-Inch 


1^-Inch 


?* 


Corruga- 


Corruga- 


Corruga- 


Corruga- 


Corruga- 


Corruga- 


O 


tions. 


tions. 


tions. 


tions. 


tions. 


tions. 


20 


162 


162 


168 


179 


179 


186 


21 


148 


148 


154 


165 


165 


171 


22 


135 


135 


140 


152 


152 


157 


23 


121 


121 


126 


138 


138 


143 


24 


108 


108 


112 


124 


124 


129 


25 


94 


94 


98 


112 


112 


115 


26 


81 


81 


84 


98 


98 


102 


27 


74 


74 


77 


91 


91 


95 


28 


67 


67 


70 


85 


85 


88 



For painted sheets add 2 pounds for paint. 

2^-inch and 3-inch corrugations — Width after corrugating, 26 
inches; approximate covering width (allowing for laps), 24 
inches. 

1^-inch corrugations — Width after corrugating, 25 inches; 
approximate covering width (allowing for laps), 24 inches. 

Corrugated sheets, black and galvanized, plain and painted: 

5-inch, 3-inch, 2^-inch, 1^-inch and |-inch corrugations. 



292 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

SIZE AND WEIGHT OF CHURCH AND SCHOOL BELLS. 



Inches in Diameter. 



School and chapel bells. 

20-inch. . . 

22- 



24- 



30- ' ' without toller. 
Church bells. 

30-inch with toller. . . 
32- 



34- 

36- 
38- 
40- 
42- 
44- 
46- 
48- 



Weight of 
Bell Only. 



105 lbs. 

125 " 

155 " 

215 " 

250 " 

320 " 

330 " 

330 " 

460 " 

550 " 

650 " 

800 " 

900 " 

1050 " 

1150 " 
1350 " 



Weight of Bell 
and Mounting. 



150 lbs. 

175 " 

225 " 

325 " 

400 " 

525 '•' 

535 

575 '* 

725 " 

800 " 

950 " 

1100 " 

1200 " 

1450 " 

1600 " 

1850 " 



APPROXIMATE DIMENSIONS OF TINNERS' 
Revised October 21, 1884. 



RIVETS. 







Diameter, 






Diameter, 


Size. 


Length. 


Wire 


Size. 


Length. 


Wire 






Gauge. 






Gauge. 


. 8 oz. 


ft 


No. 131 


3^ lbs. 


3J. 


No. 8 


10 " 


" 13 


4 " 


M 


" 7} 


12 " 


A 


** 12} 


5 " 


f 


" 6i 


14 " 


1 6 


" 12 


6 " 


ZA 


" 6 


1 lb. 


H 


" 11| 


7 " 


M 


" 5} 


11 " 
1* " 


ft 


" 11 
" 101 


8 " 

9 " 


a 


" 4J 
" 4} 


If " 


i 


" 10 


10 " 


M 


" 4 


2 lbs. 


H 


" 9} 


12 " 


i 


" 3 


2* '« 


A 


" 9 


14 " 


If 


" 2 


3 " 


5 
16 


" 81 


16 " 


a 


" 1 



WEIGHTS OF LUMBER. 
ESTIMATED WEIGHTS OF WHITE PINE. 



Timbers, rough 

Lumber, rough. 
Lumber, dressed.. . . 
Lumber, D. and M.. 

Battens, O. G 

Siding and f ceiling. 

Shingles 

Lath. . 



Pounds per Thousand Feet. 



Green. 


Dry. 


3250 


2500 


3000 


2400 


2500 


2000 


2400 


1800 


1900 


1500 


1250 


800 


450 


250 


950 


500 



SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 293 

TABLES SHOWING NUMBER OF RIVETS AND BURS TO THE 
POUND. 

Oval Head, or Trunk, Rivets and Bdrs. 

Length Measured under the Head. 



No 
9 


i 
317 


A 

270 


1 
254 


ft 
220 


206 


ft 
193 


f 

189 


i 

165 


i 1 
138 116 


n 

107 


li 
101 


Burs. 
600 



COPPER BRAZIER'S RIVETS, 

Oval, Head 
Length Measured under the Head. 



Numbers. . . 


00 





l 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Number to 


























pound.. . . 


160 


148 


66 


49 


37 


28 


23 


19 


13 


8 


6 


5 


Diameter of 


























shank. . . . 


* 


ft 


i 


IT 


3T 


A 


23. 


* 


ft 


& 


* 


& 


Length, Ins. 


ft 


i 


4 


4 


1 


1 1 

16 


4 


1 3 
16 


tt 


H 


li 


li 



FLAT-HEAD COPPER RIVETS. 
Length Measured under the Head. 

i in. diameter of shank. X f 

Number to pound 

A in- diameter of shank 

Number to pound 

| in. diameter of shank 

Number to pound 

\ in. diameter of shank. ,',:.. 

Number to pound 



X 1 
17 

X 1 



t 


1 


H 


ttin 


long 


48 


36 


32 


30 




i 


1 


li 


ttin 


long 


26 


24 


21 


17 




li 


n 


1* 


2 in 


long 


15 


13 


12 


10 




li 


11 


ii 


2 in 


long 


8 


7 


6 


5 





TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF STAR BRAND BRASS 
ESCUTCHEON PINS TO THE POUND. 

Length Measured under the Head, 



No 


i 


1 


i 


| 


t 


1 


1 


H 


n 


If 


2 


12 




720 


650 


460 


416 


400 


336 


272 


212 


192 


170 


13 




1120 


948 


672 


528 


480 


400 


380 


320 


229 


220 


14 


1875 


1312 


1100 


950 


830 


692 


600 


432 


378 


320 


272 


15 


2440 


1820 


1376 


1152 


960 


888 


720 


576 


580 


432 


400 


16 


3100 


2240 


1720 


1460 


1275 


1130 


980 


720 


592 


578 


464 


17 


3540 


2700 


2076 


1812 


1500 


1185 


1051 


928 


800 


640 




18 


4972 


3175 


2550 


2450 


2200 


1740 


1520 


1216 


960 






19 


7303 


5140 


4130 


3565 


2900 














20 


9932 


8419 


6374 


5500 


4155 















WEIGHTS OF STAIR PLATES, STOCK SIZES. 

5X18 5X20 6X18 

If lft lft 

:„ • H If H 

These tables are theoretically correct, but variations must be expected in 
practice. 



Zinc. 



6X20 
lflbs, 
2 4 " 



294 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS OF IRON AND STEEL SHEETING 
PER SQUARE FOOT. {Kent.) 



Thickness by Stubs' 


or 


Thickness by American 




Birmingham Gauge 




(Brown & Sharpe's) Gauge. 


No. of 
Gauge. 


Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


No. of 
Gauge. 


Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


0000 


.454 


18.16 


18.52 


0000 


.46 


18.40 


18.77 


000 


.425 


17.00 


17.34 


000 


.4096 


16.38 


16.71 


00 


.38 


15.20 


15.30 


00 


.3648 


14.59 


14.88 





.34 


13.60 


13.87 





.3249 


13.00 


13.26 


1 


.3 


12.00 


12.24 


1 


.2893 


11.57 


11.80 


2 


.284 


11.36 


11.59 


2 


.2576 


10.30 


10.51 


3 


.259 


10.36 


10.57 


3 


.2294 


9.18 


9.36 


4 


.238 


9.52 


9.71 


4 


.2043 


8.17 


8.34 


5 


.22 


8.80 


8.98 


5 


.1819 


7.28 


7.42 


6 


.203 


8.12 


8.28 


6 


.1620 


6.48 


6.61 


7 


.18 


7.20 


7.34 


7 


. 1443 


5.77 


5.89 


8 


.165 


6.60 


6.73 


8 


.1285 


5.14 


5.24 


9 


.148 


5.92 


6.04 


9 


.1144 


4.58 


4.67 


10 


.134 


5.36 


5.47 


10 


.1019 


4.08 


4.16 


11 


.12 


4.80 


4.90 


11 


.0907 


3.6i 


3.70 


12 


.109 


4.36 


4.45 


12 


.0808 


3.23 


3.30 


13 


.095 


3.80 


3.88 


13 


.0720 


2.88 


2.94 


14 


.083 


3.32 


3.39 


14 


.0641 


2.56 


2.62 


15 


.072 


2.88 


2.94 


15 


.0571 


2.28 


2.33 


16 


.065 


2.60 


2.65 


16 


.0508 


2.03 


2.07 


17 


.058 


2.32 


2.37 


17 


.0453 


1.81 


1.85 


18 


.049 


1.96 


2.00 


18 


.0403 


1.61 


1.64 


19 


.042 


1.68 


1.71 


19 


.0359 


1.44 


1.46 


20 


.035 


1.40 


1.43 


20 


.0320 


1.28 


1.31 


21 


.032 


1.28 


1.31 


21 


.0285 


1.14 


1.16 


22 


.028 


1.12 


1.14 


22 


.0253 


1.01 


1.03 


23 


.025 


1.00 


1.02 


23 


.0226 


.904 


.922 


24 


.022 


.88 


.898 


24 


.0201 


.804 


.820 


25 


.02 


' .80 


.816 


25 


.0179 


.716 


.730 


26 


.018 


.72 


.734 


26 


.0159 


.636 


.649 


27 


.016 


.64 


.653 


27 


.0142 


.568 


.579 


28 


.014 


.56 


.571 


28 


.0126 


.504 


.514 


29 


.013 


.52 


.530 


29 


.0113 


.452 


.461 


30 


.012 


.48 


.490 


30 


.0100 


.400 


.408 


31 


.01 


.40 


.408 


31 


.0089 


. 3&6 


.363 


32 


.009 


.36 


.367 


32 


.0080 


.320 


.326 


33 


.008 


.32 


.326 


33 


.0071 


.284 


.290 


34 


.007 


.28 


.286 


34 


.0063 


.252 


.257 


35 


.005 


.20 


.204 


35 


.0056 


.224 


.228 



Iron. Steel. 

Specific gravity 7.7 7. 854 

Weight per cubic foot 480 489 . 6 

" inch 2778 .2833 



As there are many gauges in use differing from each other, and even the 
thicknesses of a certain specified gauge, as the Birmingham, are not assumed 
the same by all manufacturers, orders for sheets and wires should always 
state the weight per square foot or the thickness in thousandths of an inch. 



SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 295 

TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER SQUARE FOOT OF COPPER AND 
BRASS SHEETS. 



American or B. & S. Gauge. 


Copper. 
Pounds. 


Brass. 


Number. 


Thickness. 


Pounds. 


0000 




20.838 
18.557 
16.525 
14.716 
13.105 


19 688 


000 


. 40964 inch 


17 533 


00 




15 613 





. 32486 " 


13.904 
12 382 


1 


.2893 " .. 








2 




11.670 
10 . 392 
9.255 
8.242 
7.340 


11 027 


3 


.22942 " . 


9.819 

8.745 
7.788 
6 935 


4 


.20431 " . 


5 
6 


. 18194 ' ' , or xs inch scant 

.16202 " 








7 


. 14428 inch 


6.536 
5.821 
5.183 
4.616 
4.110 


6 175 


8 


. 12849 " , or $ inch full 


5 499 


9 


11443 " 


4.898 
4 361 


10 


.10189 *' 


11 


.090742 " 


3 884 








12 


.0808 inch 


3.66 

3.26 

2.90 

2.585 

2.302 


3 457 


13 


.0720 " 


3 08 


14 


.06408 " 


2 743 


15 


.057068 " 


2 442 


16 


.05082 " 


2 175 








17 


.045257 inch 


2.05 

1.825 

1.626 

1.448 

1.289 


1.937 
1 725 


18 


.0403 " 


19 


.0359 " 


1 536 


20 


.0320 " 


1 367 


21 


.02846 " 


1 218 








22 


.02535 inch 


1.148 

1.023 

.910 

.811 

.722 


1 085 


23 


.02257 " 


.966 
860 


24 


.0211 " 


25 


.0179 " 


766 


26 


.0159 '* . . 


.682 






27 


.01419 inch 


.643 
.573 
.510 
.454 
.404 


608 


28 


^1264 " 


.541 

.482 
429 


29 


."01126 " 


30 


.01003 *' 


31 


. 0089 ' * 


.382 






32 


.0079 inch 


.360 
.321 
.286 
.254 
.226 


340 


33 


.0071 " 


.303 
.269 
.240 
214 


34 


. 0063 " 


35 


.0056 " 


36 


.0050 " 








37 


.00445 inch 


.202 
.180 
.160 
.142 


.191 

.170 

151 


38 


.00396 " 


39 


.00353 '* 


40 


.00314 " 


.135 







These weights are theoretically correct, but variations must be expected 
in practice. 



296 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER SQUARE FOOT OF COPPER AND 
BRASS SHEETS— (Continued). 



Stubs' Gauge. 


Copper. 
Pounds. 


Brass. 


Number. 


Thickness. 


Pounds. 


0000 


.464 inch, or ^ inch full. . . '. 


20.556 
19.253 
17.214 
15.402 
13.59 


19.431 


000 


.425 " 


18.19 


00 


.380 " , or 1 inch full 


16.264 



1 


.340 " " M " scant 

.300 " " £f " full 


14.552 
12.84 








2 




12.865 

11.733 

10.781 

9.966 

9.20 


12.155 


3 


.259 " " i " " 


11.09 


4 


.238 " " U " " 


10.19 


5 


.220 " "A " " 


9.416 


6 


.203 " "|| " " 


8.689 








7 




8.154 
7.475 
6.704 
6.070 
5.436 


7 704 


8 
9 


.165 " " « " " 

.148 " * 4 A " full 


7.062 
6.334 


10 
11 


.134 " "A " scant 

.120 " " £ " " 


5.735 
5.137 


12 


. 109 inch, or -fe inch 


4.938 
4.303 
3.760 
3.262 
2.945 


4.667 


13 


. 095 " " A " full 


4.066 


14 


.083 " " -h " " 


3.552 


15 

16 


.072 " " £i " scant 

.065 " " A- " full 


3.08 
2.78 








17 
18 


.058 inch, or rg inch scant. ........ 

049 " " ^ " full 


2.627 

2.220 

1.90 

1.59 

1.45 


2.48 
2.10 


19 

20 
21 


.042 " " A " scant 

.035 *' " A- " full 

.032 " "A " scant 


1.80 
1.50 
1.37 








22 


. 028 inch 


1.27 
1.13 
.997 
.906 
.815 


1.20 


23 


. 025 " 


1.07 


24 


.022 " 


.941 


25 


. 020 " 


.856 


26 


.018 " 


.770 








27 




.725 
• 63A 
.58f 
.544 
.453 


.685 


28 


014 " 


.599 


29 


013 *' 


.556 


30 


.012 " 


.514 


31 


.010 " 


.428 








32 


009 inch 


.408 
.362 
.317 
.227 
.181 


.385 


33 


. 008 " 


.342 


34 


007 " 


.2996 


35 


.005 " 


.214 


36 


. 004 " 


.171 









SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 297 



WEIGHT OF ALUMINUM SHEETS. 
Brown & Sharpe's Gauge. 



No. 


«5 . 

S <-> 

Q d 


fn o 

be +■> 

d 


O 
O 

GG d 


No. 


"c3 • 

3 ci 

Q a 


T3 PM 

d 


O 

d 


No. 


A d 






Si j 

W 5 O 

<u o g 

^ P M 


^ <U Hi 








I S • 

«J <J h3 




CO w 

•eg 




pq 


3 


£ 




pq 


P 


£ 




PQ 


0000 


.460 


M 


6.406 


13 


.072 




1.002 


29 


.011 


000 


.410 




5.704 


14 


.064 


T6 


.892 


30 


.010 


00 


.365 


3 


5.080 


15 


.057 




.795 


31 


.009 





.325 


W 


4.524 


16 


.051 




.708 


32 


.00795 


1 


.289 


* 


4.029 


17 


.045 


& 


.630 


33 


.00708 


2 


.258 


1 
t 


3.588 


18 


.040 




.561' 


34 


.0063 


3 


.229 


15 

64 


3.195 


19 


.036 




.500 


35 


.0056 


4 


.204 


** 


2.845 


20 


.032 


1 
32 


.445 


36 


.005 


5 


.182 


3 
16 


2.534 


21 


.028 




.396 


37 


.00445 


6 


.162 


5 
32 


2.256 


22 


,025 




.353 


38 


.00396 


7 


.144 


& 


2.009 


23 


.023 




.314 


39 


.00353 


8 


.128 


1 

8 


1.789 


24 


.020 




.280 


40 


.00314 


9 


.114 


7 
64 


1.594 


25 


.018 




.249 


41 


.0028 


10 


.102 




1.418 


26 


.016 


A 


.222 


42 


.00249 


11 


.091 


* 


1.264 


27 


.014 




.197 






12 


.081 


^ 


1.126 


28 


.013 




.176 







o 

3 S • 

^ < Hi 



.157 

.140 

.124 

.1107 

.0985 

.0877 

.0782 

.0696 

.0620 

.0552 

.0491 

.0438 



To obtain the weight of aluminum in bars, sheets, etc., divide 
the weight of similar pieces of copper by 3.3, brass by 3.1 and steel 
by 2.9. 

WEIGHT OF ASBESTOS MILL BOARD. 

Made in sheets 42 X 44 inches. ^ to ^ inch thick. 
The approximate weights of sheets are as follows: 

Thickness, -^ 
Weights, If 



T6" wz i ts i i 


\ inch. 


3i 5| 7 10* 14 21 


28 pounds 



WEIGHT OF PLATE GLASS. 
Plate glass weighs about 3| lbs per square foot. 



298 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT OF ZINC PER SHEET. 



U. S. Stand- 
ard Gauge. 


M. & H. 

Zinc 
Gauge. 


24X84 


26X84 


28X84 


30X84 


32X84 


34X84 


28 


8 


8.4 


9.1 


9.8 


10.5 


11.2 


11.9 


26-27 


9 


9.4 


10.2 


10.9 


11.7 


12.5 


13.3 


25 


10 


10.5 


11.4 


12.3 


13.1 


14.0 


14.9 


24 


11 


12.6 


13.7 


14.7 


15.8 


16.8 


17.8 


23 


12 


14.7 


15.9 


17.1 


18.4 


19.6 


20.8 


22 


13 


16.8 


18.2 


19.6 


21.0 


22.4 


23.8 


21 


14 


18.9 


20.5 


22.0 


23.6 


25.1 


26.8 


20 


15 


21.0 


22.7 


24.5 


26.2 


28.0 


29.7 


U. S. Stand- 
ard Gauge. 


M. & H. 
Zinc 
Gauge. 


36X84 


40X84 


42X84 


46X84 


48X84 


52X84 


28 


8 


12.6 


14.0* 


14.7 


16.1 


16.8 


18.2 


26-27 


9 


14.1 


15.6 


16.4 


18.0 


18.8 


20.3 


25 


10 


15.7 


17.5 


18.4 


20.1 


21.0 


22.7 


24 


11 


18.9 


21.0 


22.0 


24.0 


25.2 


27.3 


23 


12 


22.0 


24.5 


25.7 


28.2 


29.4 


31.8 


22 


13 


25.2 


28.0 


29.4 


32.2 


33.6 


36.4 


21 


14 


28.3 


31.5 


33.1 


36.2 


37.8 


40.9 


20 


15 


31.5 


35.0 


36.7 


40.2 


42.0 


45.5 



Zinc gauge can be maintained only approximately. 



THICKNESS AND WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT OF 
SHEET TIN. 



1 pound tin is ^ inch thick. 
1£ pound tin is ^\ inch thick. 

2 pound tin is £$ inch thick. 
1\ pound tin is ^ inch thick. 

3 pound tin is T ^ inch thick. 



3^ pound tin is yt inch thick. 

4 pound tin is y 7 inch thick. 
4t\ pound tin is \ inch thick. 

5 pound tin is \ inch thick. 
10 pound tin is \ inch thick. 



20 pound tin is i inch thick. 



SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 299 





8.75 
9.33 

10.89 

11.66 

14 

16.33 

9.37 
10 

11.66 
12.5 
15 
17.5 


CO CO 
<N rH 


9 . 25 to 9.5 
10 to 10.25 
11.25 to 11.5 
12.5 to 12.75 
15.25 to 15.5 
17.25 to 17.5 

10.25 to 10.5 
10.75 to 11.25 
12.5 to 13 
13.5 to 14 
16.25 to 16.75 
19 to 19 . 5 


CM rH 


10 to 10.25 
10.5 to 10.75 
12.25 to 12.5 
13.25 to 13.5 

16 to 16.25 
18.75 to 19 

10.25 to 10.75 
11.25 to 11.75 
13.25 to 13.75 
14.25 to 14.75 

17 to 17.75 
19.75 to 20.25 


3 1 


11 to 11.5 

12 to 12.5 

14 to 14.5 
14.75 to 15.25 
17.75 to 18.25 
20.75 to 21.25 

12 to 12.75 

13 to 13.5 

15 to 15.5 
16.25 to 16.75 
19.5 to 19.75 
21.5 to 23 


8 1 


12 to 12.5 

13 to 13.5 
14.75 to 15.25 
16.25 to 16.75 
18.5 to 19 
22.75 to 23.5 

13 to 13.75 

14 to 14.75 
16.25 to 16.75 
17.25 to 17.75 
20.75 to 21.25 
24 . 5 to 25 


2 1 ' 


14.75 to 15.25 
15.75 to 16.25 
18.25 to 18.75 
19.5 to 20 
23 . 5 to 24 
27.5 to 28 

15.75 to 16.5 
16.75 to 17.5 
19.5 to 20 
21 to 21.5 
25.25 to 25.75 
29 . 5 to 30 


2 1 


16.25 to 17 
17.25 to 18 
20.25 to 21 
21.5 to 21.75 
26 to 27 
30.5 to 31.25 

17.25 to 18 
18.25 to 19 
21 . 25 to 22 
23 to 23 . 75 
27.5 to 28.25 
32.25 to 33 


Gauges. 

Approx. 
Russia 
Gauge. 


tH Tfi lO CD t^ 00 Tt< -tfl l75 CO l> 00 

XXXXXX XXXXXX 

GOO0O0O000O0 oooooo 
CN CM CN CM CM <N COCOCOCOCOCO 





8.75 
9.33 

10.89 

11.66 

14 

16.33 

9.37 
10 

11.66 
12.5 
15 
17.5 






3 » 


5.5 to 5 . 75 
6 to 6 . 25 
6.75 to 7.25 
7.5 to 8 
9 to 9 . 5 
10.5 to 11 

6 to 6.25 
6.5 to 6 . 75 
7 . 25 to 7.5 
8 to 8 . 25 
9.5 to 9 . 75 
11.25 to 11.5 


& « 


6 . 25 to 6.5 
6.75 to 7.25 
7.75 to 8.25 

8 to 8 . 5 
10 to 10.5 
11.5 to 12 

6.5 to 6.75 
7 to 7.5 
8.25 to 8.5 

9 to 9 . 25 
10.25 to 10.75 
12.25 to 12.75 


CD O 
<N r-l 


6.5 to 6.75 
7 to 7.25 
8.25 to 8.5 
8.75 to 9.25 
10.75 to 11 
12.75 to 13 

7 to 7.25 
7.5 to 8 
9 to 9 . 25 
9.5 to 9.75 
11.5 to 11.75 
13.5 to 13.75 


HO rH 
<N rH 


7.25 to 7.5 
7 . 75 to 8 
9 to 9.5 
9.75 to 10.25 
11.75 to 12.25 
13.75 to 14.25 

7.5 to 8 

8.25 to 8.75 

9.5 to 9.75 

10.25 to 10.75 

12.25 to 12.75 

14.25 to 14.75 


<N rH 


8 . 25 to 8.5 
8.75 to 9 
10.25 to 10.5 
10.75 to 10.25 
13.25 to 13.5 
15.5 to 16 

8.5 to 9 
9.25 to 9.75 
11.25 to 11.75 
12 to 12.5 
14 to 14.75 
16.25 to 16.75 


Gauges. 

Approx. 
Russia 
Gauge. 


lOGOCOOcNTti iO00COO<M** 
■* tH lO CD 1-- 00 Ttl^lOCOt-00 

XXXXXX XXXXXX 

ocoooooooo-oo OOOOOO 

iNCMlNtNINCM COCOCOCOCOCO 



300 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



WEIGHT OF SHEETS OF WROUGHT IRON, STEEL, COPPER, 
AND BRASS (from Haswell). 

Weights per square foot. Thickness by Birmingham Gauge. 



Number of 
Gauge. 


Thickness 
in Inches. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


0000 


.454 


18.22 


18.46 


20.57 


19.43 


000 


.425 


17.05 


17.28 


19.25 


18.19 


00 


.38 


15.25 


15.45 


17.21 


16.26 





.34 | 


13.64 


13.82 


15.40 


14.55 


1 


.3 ! 


12.04 


12.20 


13.59 


12.84 


2 


.284 


11.40 


11.55 


12.87 


12.16 


3 


.259 


10.39 


10.53 


11.73 


11.09 


4 


.238 


9.55 


9.68 


10.78 


10.19 


5 


.22 


8.83 


8.95 


9.97 


9.42 


6 


.203 


8.15 


8.25 


9.20 


8.69 


7 


.18 


7.22 


7.32 


8.15 


7.70 


8 


.165 


6.62 


6.71 


7.47 


7.06 


9 


.148 


5.94 


6.02 


6.70 


6.33 


10 


.134 


5.38 


5.45 


6.07 


5.74 


11 


.12 


4.82 


4.88 


5.44 


5.14 


12 


.109 


4.37 


4.43 


4.94 


4.67 


13 


.095 


3.81 


3.86 


4.30 


4.07 


14 


.083 


3.33 


3.37 


3.76 


3.55 


15 


.072 


2.89 


2.93 


3.26 


3.08 


16 


.065 


2.61 


2.64 


2.94 


2.78 


17 


.058 


2.33 


2.36 


2.63 


2.48 


18 


.049 


1.97 


1.99 


2.22 


2.10 


19 


.042 


1.69 


1.71 


1.90 


1.80 


20 


.035 


1.40 


1.42 


1.59 


1.50 


21 


.032 


1.28 


1.30 


1.45 


1.37 


22 


.028 


1.12 


1.14 


1.27 


1.20 


23 


.025 


1.00 


1.02 


1.13 


1.07 


24 


.022 


.883 


.895 


1.00 


.942 


25 


.02 


.803 


.813 


.906 


.856 


26 


.018 


.722 


.732 


.815 


.770 


27 


.016 


.642 


.651 


.725 


.685 


28 


.014 


.562 


.569 


.634 


.599 


29 


.013 


.522 


.529 


.589 


.556 


30 


.012 


.482 


.488 


.544 


.514 


31 


.01 


.401 


.407 


.453 


.428 


32 


.009 


.361 


.366 


.408 


.385 


33 


.008 . 


.321 


.325 


.362 


.342 


34 


.007 


.281 


.285 


.317 


.300 


35 


.005 


.201 


.203 


.227 


.214 


Specific g 


ravity. . . . 


7.704 


7.806 


8.698 


8.218 


Weight ci 


ibic foot . . 


481.75 


487.75 


543.6 


513.6 


Weight ci 


ibic inch.. 


.2787 


.2823 


.3146 1 


.2972 



SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SHEET METAL 301 



WEIGHT OF SHEETS OF WROUGHT IRON, STEEL, COPPER 
AND BRASS (from Haswell). 



Weights per sq. ft. Thickness by American (Browne & Sharpe's) Gauge. 


Number of 
Gauge. 


Thickness 
in Inches. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


0000 


.46 


18.46 


18.70 


20.84 


19.69 


000 


.4096 


16.44 


16.66 


18.56 


17.53 


00 


.3648 


14.64 


14.83 


16.53 


15.61 





.3249 


13.04 


13.21 


14.72 


13.90 


1 


.2893 


11.61 


11.76 


13.11 


12.38 


2 


.2576 


10.34 


10.48 


11.67 


11.03 


3 


.2294 


9.21 


9.33 


10.39 


9.82 


4 


..043 


8.20 


8.31 


9.26 


8.74 


5 


.lc.19 


7.30 


7.40 


8.24 


7.79 


6 


.1620 


6.50 


6.59 


7.34 


6.93 


7 


.1443 


5.79 


5.87 


6.54 


6.18 


8 


.1285 


5.16 


5.22 


5.82 


5.50 


9 


.1144 


4.59 


4.65 


5.18 


4.90 


10 


.1019 


4.09 


4.14 


4.62 


4.36 


11 


.0907 


3.64 


3.69 


4.11 


3.88 


12 


.0808 


3.24 


3.29 


3.66 


3.46 


13 


.0720 


2.89 


2.93 


3.26 


3.08 


14 


.0641 


2.57 


2.61 


2.90 


2.74 


15 


.0571 


2.29 


2.32 


2.59 


2.44 


16 


.0508 


2.04 


2.07 


2.30 


2.18 


17 


.0453 


1.82 


1.84 


2.05 


1.94 


18 


.0403 


1.62 


1.64 


1.83 


1.73 


19 


.0359 


1.44 


1.46 


1.63 


1.54 


20 


.0320 


1.28 


1.30 


1.45 


1.37 


21 


.0285 


1.14 


1.16 


1.29 


1.22 


22 


.0253 


1.02 


1.03 


1.15 


1.08 


23 


.0226 


.906 


.918 


1.02 


.966 


24 


.0201 


.807 


.817 


.911 


.860 


25 


.0179 


.718 


.728 


.811 


.766 


26 


.0159 


.640 


.648 


.722 


.682 


27 


.0142 


.570 


.577 


.643 


.608 


28 


.0126 


.507 


.514 


.573 


.541 


29 


.0113 


.452 


.458 


.510 


.482 


30 


.0100 


.402 


.408 


.454 


.429 


31 


.00S9 


.358 


.363 


.404 


.382 


32 


.0080 


.319 


.323 


.360 


.340 


33 


.0071 


.284 


.288 


.321 


.303 


34 


.0063 


.253 


.256 


.286 


.270 


35 


.0056 


.225 


.228 


.254 


.240 



302 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



SIZE AND WEIGHT PER SHEET OF GENUINE IMPORTED 
RUSSIAN IRON. 

Sizes 28 X 56 Inches only. 



Numbers. 



No. 7 



9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14 

15. 

16. 



Size. 



28X 
28X 
28X 
28X 
28X 
28X 
28X 
28X 
28X 
28X 



56 in. 
56 " 
56 " 
56 " 
56 " 
56 " 
56 " 
56 " 
56 " 
56 " 



Approximate 
Weight per Sheet. 



6i lbs 

7i " 



10 

lOf 

llf 

12* 

13* 

14§ 



Approximate 
Wire Gauge 



No. 29 

" 28 

" 27 

" 26 

" 25 

'" 24* 

" 24 

" 23* 

" 22f 

" 21* 



Average net weight per bundle, about 225 lbs. 



WEIGHT OF METAL SHINGLES. 

Metal shingles weigh from 80 to 90 pounds per square of 100 
feet, depending on the shape of the shingle and the weight of the 
metal. 



SIZE AND LENGTH OF TINNERS' NAILS. 

f inch long, made of No. 13 wire. 
| inch long, made of No. 12 wire. 

1 inch long, made of No. 12 wire. 
1^ inch long, made of No. 11 wire. 
1* inch long, made of No. 10 wire. 

2 inch long, made of No. 9 wire. 



PAET IV. 

GAS PIPING, ETC. RULES FOR GAS FIT- 
TING. SOIL AND VENT PIPES. NAMES, 
SIZES, ETC., OF SOIL PIPE FITTINGS. 
VARIOUS METHODS AND SHORT CUTS 
FOR PLUMBERS. RULES FOR PLUMBING. 



Gas Piping, Etc. 

The gas pipes in a building should be wrought iron or soft steel 
of standard make. The fittings should be galvanized, as the zinc 
coating makes the fittings more solid and durable. Each piece 
of pipe before being put in place should be looked or blown 
through to see if it is clear of any stoppage. 

All joints should be made in red lead, and no gas-fitters' cement 
should be used in any joints except the caps on the outlets. In 
running a line of pipe it should run in as direct a line and with 
as few turns as possible. All pipes should be run so they will 
have a fall to the riser or starting-point, so that any water which 
may gather will run back to the main. In taking off branches 
or outlets from any run of pipe they should always be taken out 
at the side and all drop lights should be taken from a tee fitting 
in a short branch, and the branch extended about a foot beyond 
the tee and capped ; this insures the drop to hang plumb. 

Bracket lights should always be brought from the floor below, 
as gas should never be made to run down a pipe where it is 
possible to do otherwise, where convenient separate risers should 
be run to each floor and controlled by stopcocks in the cellar 
where they can be got at. When pipes cross wooden beams or 
joists, the pipes should be run across the top of the beams and 
the beams notched as little as possible, and not more than two 
feet from a bearing. 

303 



304 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



A short piece of pipe with a draw-off cock should be placed at 
the foot of each riser to catch and draw off any condensation. 
All pipes for drops, chandeliers, etc., should be perfectly plumb, 

and all bracket out- 
lets at right angles to 
the wall, so the fix- 
ture will hang true. 
A good way is to 
screw a short piece 
of pipe on the outlet 
and test for "true." 
Fig. 94 shows a 
handy pipe fastener 
now on the market, 
which clamps and 
holds the drop rigid. 
Lines of gas pipes 
should never be 
placed under a tile or marble floor unless absolutely necessary, 
as it is too difficult to get at them in case of repairs. 

Meters should always be placed at a convenient height for 
reading the dials, and when possible placed so the light from a 
window will throw light on the dials. 

The following sizes of connections should be left for the meter: 




Fig. 94. Gas drop clamp. 



3 light 


f in. diameter 


60 light 


2 in. diameter 


5 light 


f in. diameter 


100 light 


2 in. diameter 


10 light 


1^ in. diameter 


150 light 


2\ in. diameter 


20 light 


1£ in. diameter 


200 light 


1\ in. diameter 


30 light 


1| in. diameter 


250 light 


3 in. diameter 


45 light 


1^ in. diameter 


300 light 


4 in. diameter 



When the pipes are all in place it is a good idea to take the 
plans and go over the entire building to see that outlets have 
been provided for at every point indicated on the drawings. 

Then all outlets should be capped or plugged and the whole 
system tested with a good gauge (a mercury gauge is the best). 

When air is pumped into a completed system of pipes until the 
gauge shows a pressure of about 12 inches of mercury (which is 
equal to about 6 pounds pressure per square inch) and stands or 
remains stationary for 15 minutes, it may be considered that the 
pipes are tight. If the mercury drops at the rate of 2 inches an hour 
there are leaks that should be found and stopped. Where possible 
it is best to test each floor of piping separate. After the test is 



GAS PIPING, ETC. 



305 



made, a good scheme is to leave the pressure on and loosen 
the cap on each outlet separately and notice if the pressure 
goes down as each one is loosened; this will show if the pipes 
are all clear, or if any of them contains any obstruction. The 
test on the pipes should be repeated just before the plastering 
is commenced, and again when it is finished. 

The following table shows the size of pipes and number of 
burners which they will supply: 



Greatest 

Number of 

Feet to be 

Run. 



20 feet 
30 " 
50 " 
70 " 
100 " 



Size of 
Pipe. 



I inch 
* " 
f " 
1 

li inches 



Greatest 
Number of 
Burners to 

be Sup- 
plied. 



Greatest 

Number of 

Feet to be 

Run. 


Size of 
Pipe. 


150 feet 
200 " 
300 " 
400 " 
500 " 


1£ inches 

2 

2i " 

3 

4 



Greatest 
Number of 
Burners to 

be Sup- 
plied. 

70 

140 
225 
300 
500 



Computing the Pressure. — Pressures which have been meas- 
ured in inches of water or mercury may be translated in 
pounds per square inch or foot by multiplying the reading 
by the following figures: 

One inch of water at 62° equals 5.2 pounds per square foot. 

One inch of water at 62° equals 0.0361 pound per square inch. 

One inch of mercury at 62° equals 0.4897 pound per square 
inch. 

Pressures per square inch or square foot may be converted 
into inches or feet of water, or inches of mercury, by multiply- 
ing the pressure by the following figures : 

One pound per square foot equals 0.1923 inch of water. 

One pound per square inch equals 27.7 inches of water at 62°. 

One pound per square inch equals 2.042 inches of mercury 
at 62°. 

Increase of Pressure. — The increase of pressure in each 10 feet 
of rise in pipes with gas of various densities is as follows: 



Rise in pressure 


(ins. 



1 


.0147 
.9 


.0293 

.8 


.044 

.7 


.058 
.6 


.073 

.5 % 


.088 
.4 


.102 




.3 







Example. — The pressure in the basement at the meter is 
1.2 of water; what will be the pressure at the sixth story, 
70 feet above, the density of the gas being .4? 



306 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Solution. — The table shows that the increase will be 0.0S8 
inch for each 10 feet of rise, therefore 0.088X7 equals 0.616 inch 
increase. Then the pressure at the sixth story equals 
1.2+0.616 = 1.816. 



CAPACITY OF GAS-PIPES UNDER A PRESSURE OF 10.4 LBS. 
PER SQUARE FOOT. 







Capacity 


per Hour. 


Diameter of Pipe 


Maximum Length 
in Feet. 






in Inches. 










Coal Gas, 


Gasoline Gas, 






Cubic Feet. 


Cubic Feet. 


i 


6 


10 




1 


20 


15 


"io 


30 


30 


20 


i 


50 


100 


75 


l 


70 


175 


125 


ii 


100 


300 


200 


i* 


150 


500 


350 


2 


200 


1000 


700 


2i 


300 


1500 


1100 


3 


450 


2250 


1500 


4 


600 


3750 


2500 



Flow of Gas in Pipes. — If d = diameter of pipe in inches; 
Q= quantity of gas delivered in cubic feet per hour; Z=length 
of pipe in yards; h = pressure in inches of water-column; s= spe- 
cific gravity of the gas, air being one; then 



\ft 



Q = 1000^ \~; (Molesworth); 



\jsl 



Q = lS50d 2 K \— - (King's Treatise on Coal-gas); 



Q = 1290 



I— (J P 



Gill, Am. Gas-light Jour., 1894). 



Mr. Gill's formula is said to be based on experimental data, 
and to make allowance for obstructions by tar, etc., that tend 
to check the flow of gas through the pipe. 

An experiment made by Mr. Klegg, in London, on a 4-inch 
pipe 6 miles long gave a discharge that corresponds very 
closely with that computed by the use of Molesworth's formula. 



GAS PIPING, ETC. 



307 



The following formula for the flow of gases in pipes, together 
with coefficients for a wide range of pipe sizes, was submitted by 
Mr. L. P. Lowe of San Francisco, in the course of a paper on 
the subject presented to a meeting July, 1904, in that city of the 
Pacific Coast Gas Association. The formula is practically of the 
form printed herewith, and the values of the coefficients C are 
given in the accompanying table. Q stands for the number of 
cubic feet of gas delivered per minute at atmospheric pressure ; 
C is the constant with different values for 



2 = CR VD*p 4- 0.0761 SRL 

different pipe sizes, owing to the difference in the f rictional resist- 
ance, especially in pipes of small size; R = (P + 14.7) -r- 14.7 
where P is the terminal gauge pressure, so that R is the ratio of 
absolute terminal pressure to the atmospheric pressure; D is the 



VALUES OF CONSTANT FOR DIFFERENT SIZES 
PIPE. 



Diameter, 
Inches. 


Constant. 


Diameter, 
Inches. 


Constant. 


0.5 


36.8 


9 


61.2 


2.0 


52.7 


10 


62.1 


3. 


56.1 


14 


62.3 


4. 


57.8 


16 


62.6 


5. 


58.4 . 


18 


62.7 


6. 


59.5 


20 


62.9 


7. 


60.1 


22 


63.2 


8. 


60.7 


24 


63.2 



internal diameter of the pipe in inches ; p is the difference between 
initial and terminal pressure in pounds per square inch; 0.0761 
is the weight of 1 cu. ft. of air at atmospheric pressure; S is the 
specific gravity of the gas; and L, the length of the pipe in 
feet. 

The formula is based on pipe lines constructed of wrought 
pipes joined with ordinary screw fittings, and contemplates 
straight runs without sharp, right angle bends. The author did 
not offer any rules for modifying the formula when there are any 
bends or valves in the pipe line, but cited a number of examples 



308 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



indicating their effect. Having calculated the delivery of a mile 
of straight 4-in. piping under a pressure head of 10 lbs. per square 
inch, he said that to deliver the same quantity with a single sharp 
right angle bend would require 10.9 lbs. pressure, an increase of 
9 per cent. With three bends, other conditions remaining the 
same, 11.3 lbs. pressure would have been required, an increase of 
13 per cent. With long sweep fittings the increase of pressure 
would be much lessened. 

SIZE OF PIPE TO SUPPLY GAS LOGS AND RANGES* 



Diam. of 

Pipe, 

Inches. 


Maximum 

Length, 

Feet. 


Maximum 
Number 
Lights. 


Diam. of 

Pipe, 

Inches . 


Maximum 

Length, 

Feet. 


Maximum 
Number 
Lights. 


\ 
! 


100 
100 


1 
2 


1 

n 


100 
100 


4 

7 



Size of Service Pipe. In running the service pipe from the 
front wall of a building to the meter the size of the pipe should 
be governed by the length of run. 



Size of Pipe. 


Greatest Length of 
Run. 


Number of f in. 

Outlets it will 

supply. 


1 inch 


70 feet 
100 feet 
150 feet 
200 feet 


1 opening 
3 openings . 
5 openings 
8 openings 


1 \ inch 


1^ inch 

2 inch 





* The number of gas logs and ranges in the third column of the table 
refers to sizes for which the consumption in any log or range does not ex- 
ceed 35 cu. ft. per hour. The size of the piping for gas logs and ranges is 
for single lines run from or near the meter or source of supply for the 
specific purpose indicated. 

"When gas logs and ranges are supplied by branch pipes, or when any 
branch pipes are run from the main system of the building, the combined 
sectional areas of all pipe sections must exceed the sectional area of the 
main supply pipe sufficient to maintain the proper flow. 



GAS PIPING, ETC. 



309 



MAXIMUM SUPPLY OF GAS THROUGH PIPES IN CUBIC FEET 
PER HOUR, SPECIFIC GRAVITY BEING 0.45. 



Formula, Q = 1000^d 5 h +sl. (Molesworth.) 
Length of Pipe = 10 Yards. 



Diameter 


[Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches. 


Inches. 


0.1 


0.2 


0.3 


0.4 


0.5 


0.6 


0.7 


0.8 


0.9 


1.0 


f 


13 

26 
73 
149 
260 
411 
843 


18 
37 
103 
211 
368 
581 
112 


22 
46 
126 
258 
451 
711 
1460 


26 
53 
145 
298 
521 
821 
1686 


29 
59 

162 
333 

582 

918 

1886 


31 

64 

187 

365 

638 

1006 

2066 


34 

70 

192 

394 

689 

1082 

2231 


36 

74 

205 

422 

737 

1162 

2385 


38 
79 

218 

447 

781 

1232 

2530 


41 


i 


83 


£ 


230 


1 


471 


11 


823 


li 


1299 


2 


2667 







Length of Pipe = 100 Yards. 



re 

"S.S-S 
p.* 


Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches. 


0.1 


0.2 


0.3 


0.4 


0.5 


0.75 


1.0 


1.25 


1.5 


2.0 


2.5 


i 

l 

U 

i* 

2 
2* 
3 
3i 

4 


8 

23 

47 

82 

130 

267 

466 

735 

1080 

1508 


12 
32 

67 

116 

184 

377 

659 

1039 

1528 

2133 


14 

42 

82 

143 

225 

462 

807 

1270 

1871 

2613 


17 

46 

94 

165 

260 

533 

932 

1470 

2161 

3017 


19 

51 

105 

184 

290 

596 

1042 

1643 

2416 

3373 


23 

63 

129 

225 

356 

730 

1276 

2012 

2958 

4131 


26 

73 

149 

260 

411 

843 

1473 

2323 

3416 

4770 


29 

81 

167 

291 

459 

943 

1647 

2598 

3820 

5333 


32 

89 

183 

319 

503 

1033 

1804 

2846 

4184 

5842 


36 

103 

211 

368 

581 

1193 

2083 

3286 

4831 

6746 


42 

115 

236 

412 

649 

1333 

2329 

3674 

5402 

7542 



Length of Pipe = 1000 Yards. 



u i 




Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches. 




S'^m 
















5- a 


0.5 


0.75 


1.0 


1.5 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


1 


33 


41 


47 


58 


67 


75 


82 


u 


92 


113 


130 


159 


184 


205 


226 


2 


189 


231 


267 


327 


377 


422 


462 


21 


329 


403 


466 


571 


659 


737 


807 


3 


520 


636 


735 


900 


1039 


1162 


1273 


4 


1067 


1306 


1508 


1847 


2133 


2385 


2613 


5 


1863 


2282 


2635 


3227 


3727 


4167 


4564 


6 


2939 


3600 


4157 


5091 


5879 


6573 


7200 



310 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



MAXIMUM SUPPLY OF GAS THROUGH PIPES, ETC.— (Continued). 
Length op Pipe = 5000 Yards. 



K 8 
g.&S 


Pressure by the Water-gauge in Inches. 


p.B 


1.0 


1.5 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


2 
3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
12 


119 

329 

675 

1179 

1859 

2733 

3816 

5123 

6667 

10516 


146 

402 

826 

1443 

2277 

3347 

4674 

6274 

8165 

12880 


169 

465 

955 

1667 

2629 

3865 

5397 

7245 

9428 

14872 


189 

520 

1067 

1863 

2939 

4321 

6034 

8100 

10541 

16628 


207 

569 

1168 

2041 

3220 

4734 

6610 

8873 

11547 

18215 



Where there is apt to be trouble from frost no pipe less than $ inch 
should be used, and in extremely cold climates the smallest size should 
not be less than 1 inch. 

To provide for the resistance due to bends, one rule is to allow a pres- 
sure of 0.204 inch of water-column for each right-angled elbow. 



AQUEOUS VAPOR CONTAINED IN 1000 CUBIC FEET OF GAS 
AT INDICATED TEMPERATURE. 



Temp. 
Degrees. 


Volume 
Aqueous 
Vapor. 


Temp. 
Degrees. 


Volume 

Aqueous 

Vapor. 


Temp. 
Degrees. 


Volume 
Aqueous 
Vapor. 


40 


9.33 


54 


15.33 


68 


24.06 


41 


9.73 


55 


15.86 


69 


24.83 


42 


10.13 


56 


16.40 


70 


25.66 


43 


10.53 


57 


16.93 


71 


26.53 


44 


10.93 


58 


17.53 


72 


27.40 


45 


11.33 


59 


18.10 


73 


28.30 


46 


11.73 


60 


18.66 


74 


29.23 


47 


12.13 


61 


19.23 


75 


30.20 


48 


12.53 


62 


19.80 


76 


31.20 


49 


12.93 


63 


20.50 


77 


32.20 


50 


13.33 


64 


21.20 


78 


33.23 


51 


13.80 


65 


21.90 


79 


34.23 


52 


14.26 


66 


22.60 


80 


35.33 


53 


14.80 


67 


23.30 


81 


36.43 



SIZES, ETC., OF GAS PIPE 



311 



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312 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



J2.d 




Nominal 

Weight per 

Foot. 

Pounds 


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s 


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SIZES, ETC., OF GAS PIPE 



313 






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314 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF COUPLINGS FOR STEAM, GAS, 
AND WATER PIPE. 



Black and Galvanized. 





Nominal 


Nominal 








Size of Pipe. 


Inside 
Diameter 


Outside 
Diameter 


Nominal 


Thread 


Average 


Nominal 


Length 


per Inch 


Weight of 


Inside 


of 

Coupling. 


of 
Coupling. 


of 


of 


Coupling 


Diameter. 


Coupling. 


Screw. 


in Pounds. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 






1 


11 


f 


1 


27 


.035 


1 


M 


tt 


if 


18 


.050 


1 


II 


1 


1* 


18 


.080 


* 


H 


1A 


If 


14 


.14 


f 


II 


ift 


If 


14 


.25 


1 


itt 


ill 


If 


111 


.42 


1* 


i* 


2 


21 


HI 


.63 


1* 


if 


21 


21 


111 


.86 


2 


9JZ_ 
■^32 


925 
^¥2 


2f 


HI 


1.38 


21 


2§1 


33% 


2| 


8 


1.90 


3 


31 


3fl 


31 


8 


2.67 


3* 


925 
d 32 


4A 


3f 


8 


3.90 


4 


4.1 7 


5^ 


3f 


8 


4.40 


41 


4f 


Hi 


3f 


8 


4.70 


5 


5A 


61 


41 


8 


8.50 


6 


611 


7& 


41 


8 


9.70 


7 


7f 


8& 


41 


8 


11.10 


8 


8| 


91 


4f 


8 


13.60 


9 


y 16 


io"A 


51 


8 


17.40 


10 


10& 


iif 


61 


8 


31.10 


11 


n-41 


12M 


61 


8 


33.20 


12 


12S 


13.| 


61 


8 


44.20 


13 


131* 


16A 


6A 


8 


49.20 


14 


14ff 


16f 


6A 


8 


61.00 


15 


istt 


17M 


6A 


8 


64.00 



SIZES, ETC., OF GAS PIPES 315 

How Steel and Wrought-iron Pipes are Made. 1 — 

Lap-welding. — The plate for the larger sizes of pipe is first 
laid upon a travelling-table and the edges scarfed or bevelled. 
It is then heated in a bending furnace and rolled up into pipe 
form with the scarfed edges overlapping. The plates for the 
smaller sizes are formed up by being drawn through the die 
shown in the accompanying illustration. This consists of a 
stout cast-iron bending die the front half of which next the 
furnace door is flared out to receive the plate. Inside the 
die is a mandrel of the shape shown in the smaller engraving, 
whose rear portion is of about the size of the finished pipe. 
As the plate is pushed out of the furnace it is drawn by a pair 
of tongs through the die the flaring sides of which curve the 
plate until its edges meet and lap as they pass through the 
tubular end of the die. The plates, now bent up into form 
and known as skelp, are heated in a gas-fired welding furnace, 
and when they have reached a welding heat the skelp is pushed 
through the door at the back of the furnace into the welding- 
rolls, which are located just outside the door. The rolls, which 
are concave, are curved to the desired radius, and between 
them, held in position by a long bar, is a "ball," or mandrel, 
of the same diameter as the inside of the pipe. As the skelp 
passes through the rolls, its lapping edges are squeezed together 
between the rolls and the mandrel and a perfect weld is made. 
Each piece of pipe is carefully examined and all doubtful welds 
are rejected. The rough pipe then goes through the sizing 
rolls, in which it is brought to the exact diameter. Then it passes 
to the cross-straightening rolls the axes of which are inclined 
at an angle, as shown in the accompanying illustration. By 
this time it is perfectly true and straight, and to prevent it 
from warping as it cools, it is rolled and conveyed on a cooling- 
table to a straightening-machine, where it receives its final 
straightening in dies controlled by hydraulic pressure. The 
ends are then cut off, and after being threaded and the coup- 
ling put on, the pipe is tested in a hydraulic testing-machine, 
the smaller sizes at from 600 to 1500 pounds, the larger at 
from 500 to 750 pounds to the square inch. For oil-well tub- 
ing the tests run as high as 2500 pounds to the square inch. 

Butt-welding. — The smaller sizes of pipes are butt-welded. 
The plates, which are not scarfed as in the larger pipe, are 

1 Scientific American. 



316 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



heated in the furnace, and when raised to a welding heat are 
drawn through a bell-shaped die the diameter of which is a little 
less than that of the skelp. The pressure thus induced is suffi- 
cient to squeeze the edges together and form the plate into a 
perfectly welded pipe. 

WEIGHTS OF CAST-IRON PIPE IN POUNDS. 

Standard Water-pipe. 



Lbs. Lead 
per Joint. 


Ounces 

Jute per 

Joint. 


Size Pipe. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Weight 
per Foot 
with Bell. 


Weight 

per 

Length 

with Bell. 


Weight 
of Bell. 


3 


2.8 


3" 


15// 


17 


204 


12 


5.5 


3.5 


4" 


ii" 


22 


264 


12 


8 


5.0 


6" 


a:: 


34 


408 


24 


11 


7.0 


8" 


47 


564 


36 


14 


8.5 


10" 


II" 


64 


768 


48 


18 


11.0 


12" 


16// 
II" 


82 


984 


60 


21 


13.0 


14" 


105 


1260 


72 


24 


15.0 


16" 


V 


133 


1596 


108 


27 


16.0 


18" 


w 


160 


1920 


120 


31 


20.0 


20" 


V 


190 


2280 


144 


36 


24.0 


24" 


1" 


260 


3120 


180 


50 


33.0 


30" 


li" 


360 


4320 


204 


76 


48.0 


36" 


H" 


488 


5856 


360 


95 


58.0 


42" 


If" 


625 


7500 


468 


112 


70.0 


48" 


W 


830 


9960 


648 


170 


100.0 


60" 


H" 


1220 


14640 


960 



Standard Gas-pipe. 



Lbs. Lead 
per Joint. 


Ounces 

Jute per 

Joint. 


Size Pipe. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Weight 
per Foot 
with Bell. 


Weight 

per 

Length 

with Bell. 


Weight 
of Bell. 


3 


2.8 


3" 


.2-5/' 


14 


168 


12 


5.5 


3.5 


4" 


XA" 


19 


228 


12 


8 


5.0 


6" 


&" 


30.5 


366 


IS 


11 


7.0 


8" 


w 


41 


492 


24 


14 


8.5 


10" 


\" 


56 


672 


48 


18 


11.0 


12" 


w 


74 


888 


60 


21 


13.0 


14" 


a:: 


92 


1104 


72 


24 


15.0 


16" 


112 


1344 


96 


27 


16.0 


18" 


it- 


133 


1596 


108 


31 


20.0 


20" 


159 


1908 


120 


36 


24.0 


24" 


ii" 


205 


2460 


132 


50 


33.0 


30" 


W 


275 


3300 


168 


76 


48.0 


36" 


&i// 

64 


368 


4416 


304 



The above tables show the weights which have been adopted by the 
United States Cast Iron Pipe and Foundry Company as standard weights 
for water- and gas -pipe respectively for ordinary service. 



SIZES, ETC., OF GAS PIPES 
LIST OF STANDARD CAST IRON SPECIALS. 
(Approximate weight.) 



317 



Size in In. 


Wt. in Lbs. 


Size in In. 


Wt. in Lbs. 


Size in In. 


Wt. in Lbs. 


Crosses. 


Tees. 


Tees. 


2 


40 


2 


28 


24X12 


1425 


3 


110 


3 


85 


24X8 


1375 


3X2 


90 


3X2 


76 


24X6 


1450 


4 


140 


4 


110 


30 


3025 


4X3 


114 


4X3 


120 


30X24 


2640 


4X2 


90 


4X2 


87 


30X20 


2380 


6 


200 


6 


170 


30 X 12 


2035 


6X4 


160 


6X4 


145 


30X10 


2050 


6X3 


160 


6X3 


145 


30X6 


1825 


8 


330 


6X2 


75 


36 


5140 


8X6 


280 


8 


290 


36X30 


4200 


8X4 


265 


8X6 


280 


36X12 


4050 


8X3 


225 


8X4 


220 




10 


595 


8X3 


220 




10X8 


415 


10 


390 


45° Branch 


10X6 


430 


10X8 


345 


Pipes. 


10X4 


390 


10X6 


370 




10X3 


370 
740 


10X4 
10X3 


350 
330 




12 


3 


90 


12X10 


650 


12 


600 


4 


125 


12X8 


620 


12X10 


555 


6 


205 


12X6 


540 


12X8 


530 


6X6X4 


145 


12X4 


525 


12X6 


525 


8 


330 


12X3 


495 


12X4 


550 


8X6 


330 


14X10 


750 


14X12 


650 


24 


2765 


14X8 


625 


14X10 


650 


24X24X20 


2145 


14X6 


570 


14X8 


575 


30 


4170 


16 


1100 


14X6 


545 


36 


10300 


16X14 


1070 


14X4 


525 




16X12 


1000 


14X3 


490 




16X10 


1010 


16 


790 


Sleeves. 


16X8 


825 


16X14 


850 




16X6 


700 
690 


16X12 
16X10 


850 
825 




16X4 


2 


10 


18 


1560 


16X8 


755 


3 


30 


20 


1790 


16X6 


680 


4 


45 


20X12 


1370 


16X4 


655 


6 


100 


20X10 


1225 


18 


1235 


8 


120 


20X8 


1335 


20 


1475 


10 


140 


20X6 


1000 


20X16 


1115 


12 


190 


20X4 


1000 


20X12 


1025 


14 


208 


24 


2400 


20X10 


1090 


16 


350 


24X20 


2020 


20X8 


1070 


18 


340 


24X6 


1340 


20X6 


875 


20 


400 


30X20 


2635 


20X4 


845 


24 


710 


30X12 


2250 


24X10 


1465 


30 


965 


30X8 


1995 


24 

24X20 


2000 
1730 


36 


1200 



318 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LIST OF STANDARD CAST IRON SPECIALS. — (Continued.) 


Size in In. 


Wt. in Lbs. 


Size in In. 


Wt. in Lbs. 


Size in In. 


Wt. in Lbs. 


90° Elbows. 


Reducers. 


Plugs. 


2 


14 


3X2 


35 


2 


3 


3 


34 


4X3 


45 


3 


10 


4 


55 


4X2 


40 


4 


10 


6 


120 


6X4 


95 


6 


15 


8 


150 


6X3 


70 


8 


30 


10 


260 


8X6 


126 


10 


46 


12 


370 


8X4 


116 


12 


66 


14 


450 


8X3 


116 


14 


90 


16 


660 


10X8 


200 


16 


100 


18 


850 


10X6 


180 


18 


130 


20 


900 


10X4 


160 


20 


150 


24 


1400 


12X10 


320 


24 


185 


30 


3000 


12X8 
12X6 


300 


30 


370 






250 








12X4 


250 


Caps. 




14 X 12 


475 


I or 45° 
Bends. 


14X10 


400 




14X8 


390 


3 


20 




14X6 


285 


4 


25 




16X12 

16X10 


475 
435 


6 


60 


3 


30 


8 


75 


4 


70 


20X16 


690 


10 


100 


6 


95 


20X14 


575 


12 


120 


8 
10 


150 

200 


20X12 
20X8 


540 
400 


16 


265 




12 
16 


290 
510 


24X20 
30X24 


860 
1305 


Drip-boxes. 


18 


580 


30X18 
36X30 


1385 
1730 




20 
24 


780 
1425 


4 
6 


295 
330 


30 


2000 






8 


375 


Angle Reducers 


10 
20 


875 




1420 




for Gas. 






T6 or 22P 
Bends. 












6X4 
6X3 


95 
70 




4 


65 




6 


150 








8 


155 










10 
12 


205 
260 


S Pipes. 




16 


450 






24 


1280 








30 


2300 


4 
6 


105 
190 





WEIGHT OF UNDERGROUND PIPES. 

Adopted by the National Fire Protective Association, May 23, 1905. 
Weights to be not less than those specified where the normal 
pressures do not exceed 125 pounds. Where the normal pres- 
sures are in excess of 125 pounds, heavier piping should be used. 
Weights given include sockets. 

Size of pipe in inches 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 

Weight per foot in pounds .. . 19 32 48 67 87 109 133 



SIZES, ETC., OF GAS PIPES 



319 



SIZE, WEIGHT, 



ETC., OF FLANGED CAST IRON PIPE 
AND WATER WEIGHT. 



GAS 











o 







oa 


.be 


£ 


s 


o 


<W 


o 


pq 




to" 


I 


03 


<N 






<i3 . 


<X> be 


o 


-d oa 




PQ 


O 


T3 O 

a> O 


lis 5 




3 9 


a! S 


e a 


"S 71 


c 5 


<4H 


£l 


"cf ^ 


o3 .be bo 


o 
<v 
.2 










c3 O 
O W 


O 

.2 


"Si 

a 


Is 

1/3 


i ^ ^ 


w 


H 


s 


H 


5 


fc 


m 


yl 


H 


H 


4 


! 


9 


it 


7$ 


4— | 


f 


2f 


17 


204 


6 


A 


11 




9$ 


8- 1 


2 
4 


3 


30 


360 


8 


7 
16 


13$ 


H 


Hf 


8- 1 


3 

4 


3$ 


40 


480 


10 


A 


16 


ift 


14$ 


12—1 


1 


3f 


50 


600 


12 


$ 


19 


H 


17 


12—1 


7 

8 


3f 


70 


840 


14 


ft 


21 


if 


18f 


12-1| 


1 


4$ 


83 


1000 


16 


ft 


23i 


1 ' 
Ale 


21$ 


16-1| 


1 


4$ 


100 


1200 


18 


ft 


25 


1ft 


22| 


16—1$ 


1$ 


4f 


133 


1600 


20 


1* 


27i 


1 11 
1 T6 


25 


20—1$ 


1$ 


5 


150 


1800 


24 


f 


32 


H 


29$ 


20— If 


H 


5$ 


183 


2200 


30 


1 


38f 


21 


36 


28—1$ 


If 


6$ 


275 


3300 


36 


l 


45f 


2f 


42| 


32—1$ 


If 


6$ 


392 


4708 


42 


l 


52| 


2f 


491 


36— If 


1$ 


7$ 


497 


5962 


48 


n 


59$ 


2# 


56 


44-lf 


1$ 


7f 


698 


8374 


















tn 


.bp 


£ 




tM 




<M 


PQ 


0) 

.2 


w 


O 

PQ 


'3 


<N 


i 


o 


o 


o 





02 


O 


<*-. 


-0 


T3 j? -1 


5 
53 


1 . 


S3 . 

5 


" Si 

gS 


<3 o3 

S 


T3 . 

6$ 


PQ 



<v 

N 

02 


1 
h-1 


<D O 

I & 


B 5 5 

03 be 5) 


4 


7 
16 


9 


15 
16 


7$ 


4- I 


I 


2f 


22 


264 


6 


1 
2 


11 


1 


9$ 


8- I 


3 
4 


3 


33 


396 


8 


ft 


13$ 


H 


in 


8- 1 


3 

4 


3$ 


45 


540 


10 


1 


16 


1ft 


Mi 


12—1 


7 
8 


3f 


60 


720 


12 


5 
8 


19 


H 


17 


12—1 


7 
'8 


3f 


80 


960 


14 


f 


21 


If 


18f 


12-1| 


1 


4$ 


117 


1400 


16 


1 


23$ 


1ft 


21i 


16-1$ 


1 


4$ 


125 


1500 


18 


i 


25 


1ft 


22| 


16—1$ 


1$ 


4f 


167 


2000 


20 


if 


27$ 


Itt 


25 


20—1$ 


1| 


5 


200 


2400 


24 


1 


32 


1* 


29i 


20-lf 


1$ 


5$ 


250 


3000 


30 


1* 


38f 


2| 


36 


28—1$ 


If 


6$ 


350 


4200 


36 


If 


45| 


2| 


42| 


32—1$ 


If 


6$ 


475 


5700 


42 


H 


52| 


2f 


49$ 


36-1 f 


1$ 


7$ 


600 


7200 


48 


1$ 


59$ 


21 


56 


44-lf 


1$ 


7f 


775 


9300 



320 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

FLANGED CAST IRON PIPE — HEAVY WEIGHT. 













o 










& 


'o 


"8 


o 


03 


03 

.2 


w 






*-* be 


s 

o 

<D 


1 . 


S3 . 


8 £ 
g g, 

I s 


1 s 

03 £2 


53 

■gjj 

a o 

o w 


o 
PQ 

o 
.2 


GO 

"Si 5 
C PQ 

03 


t| be -^ 

■§i! 


-d _^ a 

<D jg 03 
"£ bct-3 

S ^ fe 

to ^ 


s 


H 


s 


H 


s 


£ 


53 


^ 


w 


H 


4 


l 

2 


9 


if 


71 


4— 1 


1 


21 


24 


285 


6 


A 


11 


1 


91 


8- 1 


3 


3 


39 


465 


8 


5 

8 


13J 


H 


111 


8- 1 


1 


31 


57 


680 


10 


1 


16 


i* 


14i 


12—1 


7 
8 


3f 


84 


1010 


12 


if 


19 


11 


17 


12—1 


7 
8 


31 


109 


1304 


14 


f 


21 


if 


181 


12-li 




41 


137 


1642 


16 


1 


23i 


i& 


211 


16-11 




41 


178 


2137 


18 


1* 


25 


1A 


221 


16—11 


1 1 

J-8 


41 


209 


2503 


20 


11 


27i 


itt 


25 


20—11 


11 


5 


250 


2980 


24 


H 


32 


if 


291 


20— If 


1 1 
*4 


51 


330 


3965 


30 


l* 


381 


21 


36 


28—11 


if 


61 


495 


5937 


36 


if 


451 


2f 


421 


32—11 


if 


61 


693 


8316 


42 


2 


521 


2| 


491 


36-1 f 


11 


71 


924 


11081 


48 


21 


591 


21 


56 


44-1 1 


11 


71 


1182 


14179 



The Meaning of Trade Terms as Applied to 
Wrought Pipe. 

Wrought Iron Pipe. — This term is now used indiscrimi- 
nately to designate all butt or lap welded pipe, whether made of 
iron or steel. 

Merchant Pipe. — This term is used to indicate the regular 
wrought pipe of the market, and such orders are usually filled by 
the shipment of soft steel pipe. The weight of merchant pipe 
will usually be found to be about five per cent less than card 
weight, in sizes 1 inch to six inch, inclusive, and about ten per 
cent less than card weight, in sizes seven inch to twelve inch, 
inclusive. 

Full Weight Pipe. — This term is used where pipe is required 
of about card weight. All such pipe is made from plates which 
are expected to produce pipe of card weight, and most of such 
pipe will run full card to a little above card, but owing to exigen- 
cies of manufacture, some lengths may be below card, but never 
more than five per cent. 



SIZES, ETC., OF GAS PIPES 321 

Large O. D. Pipe. — A term used to designate all pipe larger 
than twelve inch. Pipe twelve inch and smaller is known by 
the nominal internal diameter, but all larger sizes by their exter- 
nal diameter, so that " f ourteen-inch pipe," if three-eighths inch 
thick, is thirteen and one-fourth inch inside, and " twenty 
inch pipe " of same thickness is nineteen and one-fourth inch- 
inside. 

The terms "Merchant," or "Standard pipe," are not applicable 
to "Large O. D. pipe," as these are made in various weights, and 
should properly be ordered by the thickness of the metal. 

When ordering large pipe threaded, it must be remembered that 
one-fourth inch metal is too light to thread, five sixteenths being 
minimum thickness. 

Orders received by manufacturers for large outside diameter 
pipe, wherein the thickness of metal is not specified, are filled as 
follows : 

Fourteen, fifteen, and sixteen inch, O. D., five-sixteenths or 
three-eighths inch metal. 

Larger sizes three-eighths inch metal. 

This pipe is shipped with plain ends, unless definitely ordered 
"threaded." 

Extra Strong Pipe. — This term designates a heavy pipe, 
from one-eighth to eight inches only, made of either puddled 
wrought iron or soft steel. Unless directed to the contrary, 
manufacturers usually ship steel pipe. If wrought iron pipe is 
required, use the term, "Strictly Wrought Iron Extra Strong 
Pipe." Extra strong pipe is always shipped with plain ends and 
without couplings, unless instructions to thread and couple are 
given, for which there is an extra charge. 

This term, when applied to pipe larger than eight inch, is some- 
what indefinite, as nine, ten, and twelve inch is made both seven- 
sixteenths and one-half inch thick. These sizes are usually 
carried in stock, one-half inch thick, and always furnished that 
thickness on open orders. 

Double extra Strong Pipe. — This pipe is approximately 
twice as heavy as extra strong, and is made from one-half to 
eight inches, in both iron and steel. It is difficult, however, to 
find any quantity in "Strictly Wrought Iron," and stock is 
usually soft steel. This pipe is shipped with plain ends, without 
couplings, unless ordered to thread and couple, for which there is 
an extra charge. 



322 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Cement Joints for Gas Mains.* 

Cement joints for gas mains were adopted by the Laclede Gas 
Light Company of St. Louis, Mo., in 1904. Subsequently the 
company was ordered by the Director of Public Works to dis- 
continue the use of cement for joints. The reason given for this 
order was that the joints would undoubtedly leak in the future, 
necessitating disturbance of the streets for repairs. The com- 
pany at once addressed circulars to sixty gas companies asking for 
their experience with cement joints and the attitude of their 
respective city authorities on the subject. A total of fifty-two 
replies were received. These replies, together with the results of 
numerous tests of cement joints in St. Louis, tables comparing 
the cost of cement and lead joints and a general discussion of the 
subject, were submitted to the convention of the Western Gas 
Association at Chicago last May, in a paper by Mr. Jacob D. von 
Maur, f C. E. 

The points brought out by the circulars sent to the various 
companies are summarized by Mr. von Maur as follows: 

(1) In general, those answers which are unfavorable to the use 
of cement come from cities where cement has never been tried 
very extensively. 

(2) There seems to be a prejudice against the use of cement in 
the business sections of the very large cities. 

(3) In a number of cases cement joints were used to a very 
limited extent with very good success, yet for some unexplainable 
reason its use was not continued. 

(4) In every case, with one exception, Portland cement was 
used, and in the exception noted Rosendale cement was used. 

(5) There is a difference of opinion as to whether it is necessary 
to use the foreign or more expensive brands of Portland cement 
or domestic cements. 

(6) There is a very wide difference of opinion as to whether 
provision should be made for expansion or not, but in every case 
where provision was made at all it was done by inserting lead 
joints at stated intervals. 

(7) It seems to be the generally accepted opinion that cement 

* Engineering News. 

t Superintendent of the Street Department of the Laclede Gas Light Co., 
St. Louis, Mo. The paper was a long one. It may be found in full in 
the "Progressive Age" of June 15, 1905, where it fills about a dozen 



SIZES, ETC., OF GAS PIPES 323 

should not be used in soft places or in any place where there is 
likely to be a settlement of the pipe or where the pipe is subjected 
to vibration. 

(8) It is very important to note that in almost every case the 
tests applied to pipe laid with cement joints are many times 
greater than the tests applied to pipe laid with lead joints. 

(9) In only one case was an objection made by the city officials 
to the use of cement joints, and this objection was removed as 
soon as the value of the cement joint was demonstrated; so that 
at present we have no record of an objection on the part of the 
city officials to the use of cement in making up joints. 

(10) In no case has the leakage increased by the use of cement, 
and in nearly every case the leakage has decreased. 

Mr. von Maur emphasizes, at another point in his paper, the 
importance of laying gas pipe on a solid foundation, without 
which, he says, it is useless to try to prevent leakages. He sug- 
gests laying a board or plank beneath each end of each length of 
pipe, the board being laid flatwise at right angles to the pipe and 
being embedded to its own depth in the earth. Of course holes 
are dug for the pipe bells. 

Nearly a third of the cities were not using cement at all, but 
of those a few proposed to do so soon. 

The following cities were using cement for all or nearly all 
joints: Atlanta, Ga. ; Bridgeport, Conn.; Camden, N. J. (for all 
low-pressure mains; do, same company, for Trenton and for 
numerous small towns) ; Chester, Pa. (also coating all wrought 
iron pipe with cement as a precaution against electrolysis); 
Danbury, Conn.; Derby, Conn.; Des Moines, la.; Fall River, 
Mass. ; Grand Rapids, Mich. ; Houston, Tex, ; Lowell, Mass. ; Mt. 
Vernon, N. Y. ; New Orleans, La. ; Paterson, N. J. ; Philadelphia, 
Pa. ; Pittsburg, Pa. ; Reading, Pa. ; St. Augustine, Fla. ; Savannah, 
Ga. ; Scranton, Pa. 

The report from Chicago stated that a 16-inch main was laid 
with cement joints in 1862 and, so far as known, has given no 
trouble from leakage. In a number of cities cement joints have 
been used for 40 to 50 years. 

Tests of cement joints in various sized mains at St. Louis were 
as a rule very favorable as to tightness. 

The approximate saving in using cement instead of lead was 
given by Mr. von Maur, as shown by the accompanying table, 
the columns of larger figures being for heavier lead. 



324 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



APPROXIMATE SAVING PER MILE OF GAS MAIN BY USING 
CEMENT INSTEAD OF LEAD JOINTS. 



Diameter, Inches. 






4 


$170.00 
218.00 
319.00 
398.00 
490.00 
660.00 
834.00 
1,249.00 
1,632.00 


$114.80 


6 


129.80 


8 


165.00 


10 


244.20 


12 


337.92 


16 


554.40 


20 


822.80 


24 


1,137.08 


30 


1,485.00 







C. P. Clark of Pittsburg uncovered some cement joints in an 
old gas main that had been used for gas from 1876 to 1903. In 
1906 when the pipe was dug up the joints were found firm and 
solid, and there was no sign of corrosion of the pipe at any of the 
joints. 

Rules for Gas Fitting. 

The following rules for gas fitting are taken from the Cleveland 
Ohio Building Code: 

Gas Fitting. Sec. 1. Gas Mains and Meters. — All gas 
mains entering any building shall be thoroughly cemented into 
the wall and shall have a shut-off near the curb line. Gas meters 
shall not be placed underneath any stairway or in any clothes or 
storage closet or in the dead space between the floors under show 
windows, and when located in any cellar or basement such loca- 
tion shall not be in any fuel or furnace room, but they shall be 
placed close to the front wall at least four (4) feet above the floor 
and as near a window as possible, with an unobstructed passage- 
way leading thereto. 

Sec. 2. Meters of Different Gases. -— When different 
kinds of gases, either natural or artificial, or both, or electric wires, 
are used in the same building, the meters and shut-offs thereto 
within the building shall be placed as far as possible from each 
other, and if nearer than five (5) feet, there shall be a brick wall 
or a fireproof partition between them. Each gas system shall be 
separately and independently piped to its respective outlets, 



RULES FOR GAS FITTING 



325 



and when it is desired to change from one system to another, the 
change shall be made at the meter; interconnecting pipe or by- 
passes shall not be used, provided that where two (2) gas systems 
have independent service pipes run from the meters to any fur- 
nace, heater, range or other outlet, the inter-connection may be 
made near the outlet with a positive three (3) way gas stop- 
cock. 

Sec. 3. Plans of Gas Meters and Shut-offs. — All meters, 
mains, and shut-offs within a building shall be located in an 
accessible, unobstructed, natural lighted place in the basement, 
if possible, and when the location of same in the basement is 
impracticable, they shall be grouped on their respective floors for 
all floors above the first, and the plans of such locations in build- 
ings of the first, second and third grades shall be placed on file 
in the Department of Buildings for the use of the fire depart- 
ment. All plans shall show all outlets with the number of burners 
attached. 

Sec. 4. Burners and Fires. — The term "burner" shall 
apply to any single gas outlet consuming not less than six (6) 
or more than ten (10) cubic feet per hour, and the term "fire" 
to any single outlet consuming from fifty (50) to and not exceed- 
ing seventy-five (75) cubic feet per hour. 

Sec. 5. Sizes of Pipe. — The size of pipe used for illuminating 
purposes shall not be less, nor the length greater, to the number 
of burners stated, than those specified in the following table, 
except that if the number of burners is not more than half the 
•stated maximum, the length of run may be increased one-half: 



Size of Pipe. 


Greatest Length 
Allowed. 


Greatest No. 
of Burners. 


| inch 


10 feet 

30 feet 

60 feet 

80 feet 

120 feet 

160 feet 

200 feet 

300 feet 

450 feet 

600 feet 


2 


£ inch 


6 


f inch 


20 


1 inch 


35 


1 \ inches 


60 


1^ inches 


100 


2 inches 


200 


2\ inches 


300 


3 inches 


450 


4 inches 


750 







326 • MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

But no riser from a meter shall be less than a three-quarter 
(f)-inch pipe. 

In applying the above table, the number of burners to outlets 
in various locations shall be estimated as follows: 

Parlor ceiling outlet 4 burners 

Dining room ceiling outlet 4 burners 

Bedroom ceiling outlet • 3 burners 

Kitchen ceiling outlet 1 burner 

Bracket and newel post outlets 1 burner 

Hall, pantry, wash room and bath room ceiling outlets . 1 burner 

An outlet for a gas range or water heater or a gas log or grate 
shall be counted as equivalent to and not less than six (6) burners, 
and all gas ranges and heaters shall have a straightway valve on 
the service pipe. 

Smaller pipe than half-inch (|) shall not be used for kitchen 
outlets in ceilings. 

Sec. 6. Qu'ality of Pipe. — The pipe shall be of the best qual- 
ity of wrought iron or steel pipe, with galvanized malleable iron 
fittings, and joints shall be made with white lead, preferably 
applied to the male threads. 

No second-hand pipe shall be used, except that when a building 
is undergoing reconstruction or repair such gas pipe as is taken 
out and found in good condition may be re-run. 

Sec. 7. Supports and Grades. — All pipes shall be suitably, 
supported and stayed with pipe hooks, straps and screws. 

All pipes shall be properly graded, and, if practicable, toward 
the meter. A bracket outlet shall preferably be run as a riser 
than as a drop. No gas pipe shall be laid in cement, unless the 
pipe and channel in which it is placed are covered with tar, nor 
within six (6) inches of an electric wire. 

Sec. 8. Cutting and Fitting. — In the installation of the 
gas piping the cutting and fitting around the structural parts of 
the building shall be done in conformity with Sec. 25, Title IX, 
Sees. 5 and 12, Title XIII, and Sec. 13, Title XV. 

Sec. 9. Risers. — The rising line of pipes in all buildings shall 
be carried up on an inside partition out of the reach of frost, and 
shall be placed where the stop-cock can be readily got at. In 



RULES FOR GAS FITTING 327 

buildings of large undivided floor spaces the risers shall be run 
exposed at least six (6) feet distant from any window. 

Sec. 10. Drops or Outlets. — Drops or outlets less than 
three quarters (f ) of an inch in diameter shall not be left more 
than three-quarters (f) of an inch below plastering, center- 
piece, or woodwork, and other outlets shall not project more 
than three-quarters (f ) of an inch beyond plastering or woodwork. 

Sec. 11. Stop-Pins. — All stop-pins to keys or cocks or fix- 
tures shall be screwed into place. 

Sec. 12. Capping and Inspection. — After the piping is run 
all openings shall be closed with iron caps and in no case shall lead 
caps be allowed, and all unused outlets shall be kept capped. All 
split pipe or defective fittings shall be removed and no pipe or 
defective fitting repaired with cement or lead will be allowed. 
No gas-fitters' cement shall be used except at a fixture joint. All 
pipes shall be examined and tested before said pipes are concealed, 
and due notice shall be given by the fitter to the Inspector when 
any pipe is ready for inspection. 

Sec. 13. Tests. — The gas piping in any building shall be 
tested air-tight by the gas fitters under the direction of the 
Inspector, viz.: First, when roughing in is completed and before 
the floors are laid ; and, second, when the entire building is com- 
pleted and the work ready for gas fixtures. Said tests shall be 
made by having all openings closed and subjecting the piping to 
an air pressure test that will support a column of mercury twenty 
(20) inches in height at least fifteen (15) minutes, provided that 
in no case shall a spring or steam gauge be used. 

There shall be a final test of all fixtures and pipes by two (2) 
inches of mercury, which must stand five (5) minutes; this test 
to be made in the presence of the Inspector. 

On proof of a satisfactory test the Inspector shall issue a certifi- 
cate of inspection to the fitter, covering said work. 

Sec. 14. Gas Brackets. — All gas brackets shall be placed 
at least three (3) feet below any ceiling or woodwork unless the 
same is properly protected by a shield, in which case the dis- 
tance shall not be less than eighteen (18) inches. No swinging 
or folding gas bracket shall be placed against any stud partition 
or woodwork. No gas bracket on any lath and plaster partition 
or woodwork shall be less than five (5) inches in length, measured 



328 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

from the burner to the plaster surface or woodwork, and shall be 
at least two (2) inches from any door or window casing. No 
outlet shall be placed behind any door or within four (4) feet of 
any meter. 

Sec. 15. Hose Outlets. — No independent connection for a 
hose outlet shall be placed above the stiff joint on any chandelier 
or pendant, but such connection shall be brought down to an 
accessible point. / 

Sec. 16. Extensions or Alterations. — Where any material 
extensions or alterations are to be made the work shall be done 
in conformity to the provisions of this Title. 

No extension or alteration of any existing system of gas piping 
in a building in excess of fifteen (15) feet in length and unless 
the same is entirely exposed shall be made without reporting the 
same to the Inspector for inspection. Extensions shall conform 
in size to the table of Sec. 5, and shall be made from the largest 
practicable outlet. 

The provisions of this section shall also apply where the use 
of one system is changed to another as prescribed in Sec. 2. In 
such cases the whole system shall be retested and certified to 
before a permit for such change shall be granted. 

Sec. 17. Natural or Fuel Gas. — In piping any building 
for natural gas for fuel purposes, no one (l)-inch main shall 
supply more than five (5) fires, and when there are more than 
five (5) fires, one and one-quarter (lj)-inch pipe shall be used; 
one-half (^)-inch branches from mains shall not supply more 
than one (1) fire and three-quarter (f)-inch branches not more 
than two (2) fires, but nothing in this section shall prohibit the 
use of a three-eighths (3-8)-inch riser for supplying one (1) fire, 
if not over ten (lO)-feet in length. 

Sec. 18. Condemnation and Removal. — The Inspector 
shall promptly condemn and order the removal, reconstruction 
or repair of any system of gas piping or portion thereof, which 
does not conform to these regulations. He shall order the neces- 
sary repairs to be made when defects are found in any old system 
of gas piping or fixtures connected therewith, and such repairs 
shall be promptly made by the responsible party upon service of 
order or notice. 



RULES FOR GAS FITTING 329 



Rules and Table for Proportioning Sizes of 
House Pipes.* 

The table on the following page is based on the well-known 
formula for the flow of gas through pipes. The friction, and 
therefore the pressure necessary to overcome the friction, increases 
with the quantity of gas that goes through, and as the aim of 
the table is to have the loss in pressure not exceed -^ in. water 
pressure in 30 ft., the size of the pipe increases in going from 
an extremity toward the meter, as each section has an increas- 
ing number of outlets to supply. The quantity of gas the 
piping may be called on to pass through is stated in terms 
of f-in. outlets, instead of cubic feet, outlets being used as a 
unit instead of burners, because at the time of first inspection 
the number of burners may not be definitely determined. In 
designing the table, each f-in. outlet was assumed as requiring 
a supply of 10 cu. ft. per hour. 

In using the table observe the following rules: 

1. No house riser shall be less than f- in. The house riser 
is considered to extend from the cellar to the ceiling of the 
first, story. Above the ceiling the pipe must be ' extended of 
the same size as the riser, until the first branch line is taken off. 

2. No house pipe shall be less than § in. An extension to 
existing piping may be made of ^-in. pipe to supply not more 
than one outlet, provided said pipe is not over 6 ft. long. 

3. No gas- range shall be connected with a smaller pipe than 
fin. 

4. In figuring out the size of pipe, always start at the ex- 
tremities of the system and work toward the meter. 

5. In using the table, the lengths of pipe to be used in each 
case are the lengths measured from one branch or point of junc- 
ture to another, disregarding elbows or turns. Such lengths 
will be hereafter spoken of as " sections." No change in size 
of pipe may be made except at branches or outlets, each "sec- 
tion" therefore being made of but one size of pipe. 

6. If any outlet is larger than | in. it must be counted as 
more than one, in accordance with the schedule below: 

Size of outlet (inches) \ f 1 \\ 1£ 2 2\ 3 

Value in table 2 4 7 11 16 28 44 64 

* The Denver Gas and Electric Company. 



330 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



TABLE SHOWING THE CORRECT SIZES OF HOUSE 
PIPES FOR DIFFERENT LENGTHS OF PIPES AND 
NUMBER OF OUTLETS. 



Number 

of 
Outlets. 


Lengths < 


}f Pipes 


in Feet. 






iHs-in. 
Pipe. 


J^-in. 
Pipe. 


Pipe. 


1-in. 
Pipe. 


IM-in. 
Pipe. 


lK-in. 
Pipe. 


2-in. 
Pipe. 


2^-in. 
Pipe. 


3-in. 
Pipe. 


1 
2 
3 
4 


20 


30 

27 
12 


50 

50 
50 
50 
33 
24 
13 


70 
70 

70 
70 
70 
70 
50 
35 
21 
16 


100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

60 

45 

27 

17 

12 


150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

120 

65 

42 

30 

22 

17 

13 


200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

175 

120 

90 

70 

55 

45 

27 

20 


300 
300 

300 

300 

300 

300 

300 

300 

300 

300 

300 

300 

300 

270 

210 

165 

135 

80 

60 

33 

22 

15 


400 
400 
400 
400 


5 






400 


6 






400 


8 






400 


10 






400 


13 








400 


15 








400 


20 








400 


25 










400 


30 










400 


35 










400 


40 












400 


45 












400 


50 












330 


65 














200 


75 














150 


100 














80 


125 
















50 


150 
















35 


175 
















28 


200 


















21 


225 


















17 


250 


















14 























7. If the exact number of outlets given cannot be found in 
the table, take the next larger number. For example, if seven- 
teen outlets are required, work with the next larger number 
in the table, which is 20. 

8. If, for the number of outlets given, the exact length of the 
"section" which feeds these outlets cannot be found in the 
table, the next larger length corresponding to the outlets given 
must be taken to determine the size of pipe required. Thus, 
if there are eight outlets to be fed through 55 ft. of pipe, the 
length next larger than 55 in the eight-outlet line in the table 
is 100, and as this is in the 1^-in. column, that size pipe would 



RULES FOR GAS FITTING 331 

be required. Under Rule 7 the same size pipe would be re- 
quired for seven outlets. 

9. For any given number of outlets, do not use a smaller size 
pipe than the smallest size that contains a figure in the table for 
that number of outlets. Thus, to feed 15 outlets, no smaller size 
pipe than 1 in. may be used, no matter how short the "section" 
may be. 

10. In any piping plan, in any continuous run from an ex- 
tremity to the metre, there may not be used a longer length 
of any size pipe than found in the table for that size, as 50 ft. 
for | in., 70 ft. for 1 in., etc. If any one "section " would exceed 
the limit length, it must be made of larger pipe. Thus, 6 outlets 
could not be fed through 75 ft. of 1-in. pipe, but 1\ in. would have 
to be used. When two or more successive "sections/' work out to 
the same size of pipe and their total length or sum exceeds the 
longest length in the table for that size pipe, make the "section " 
nearest the metre of the next larger size. For example, if we 
have 5 outlets to be supplied through 45 ft. of pipe, and these 5 
and 5 more, making 10 in all, through 30 ft. of pipe, we should 
find by the table that 10 outlets through 30 ft. would require 
1-in. pipe, and that 5 outlets through 45 ft. would also require 
1-in. pipe, but as the sum of the two sections, 30 plus 45 equals 
75 ft., is longer than the amount of 1 in. that may be used in 
any continuous run, the 30-ft. section, being the one nearer the 
metre, must be made of lj-in. pipe. The application of the 
limit in length of any one size in a continuous run may also be 
shown as follows: Eight outlets will allow of 13 ft. of f-in. pipe 
in the section between the eighth and ninth outlet (counting from 
the extremity of the system toward the metre), provided that 
this 13 ft. added to the total length of f-in. pipe that may have 
been used between the extremity of the run and the eighth outlet 
does not exceed 50 ft., which, according to the table, is the 
greatest length of f in. allowable in any one branch of the system. 
Therefore, up to the eighth outlet, 37 ft. of f-in. pipe could 
have been used, and yet allow 13 ft. of f in. to be used in the 
section between the eighth and ninth outlet. If more than 
37 ft. had been used, then the entire 13 ft. between the eighth 
and ninth outlets would have to be of 1-in. pipe. 

11. Never supply gas from a smaller size pipe to a larger 
one. If we have 25 outlets to be supplied through 200 ft. of 
pipe, and these 25 and 5 more, making 30 in all, through 100 
ft. of pipe we should find by the table that 25 outlets through 



332 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



200 ft. would require 2^-in. pipe, and 30 outlets through 100 ft. 
would require 2-in. piping, but as under this condition a 2-in. 
pipe would be supplying a 2§-in., the 100 ft. section must be 
made 2^ in. 




The sizes of pipes in the above diagram are in accordance with 
the foregoing rules and table. 



RULES FOR GAS FITTING 333 

Directions for Working Around Gas Piping.* 

Danger of Explosion. — A gas man must never forget the 
danger of an explosion. 

No fire must be used on any repair work, for thawing frozen 
ground or for any other purpose. 

Smoking is especially dangerous and is forbidden on this 
account. 

Never attempt to find a leak anywhere with a light or apply 
a flame to light the escaping gas. 

Leaks must be located either by the sense of smell or the use 
of soapsuds. 

Never use matches or take an unprotected flame into a building. 
Safety lamps can be obtained for work where other lights will be 
dangerous. 

Gas escaping through the ground has been known to be 
deodorized. There is only one rule to be followed with regard 
to fire or lights where there is the least possibility of gas being 
present, and that is, most imperatively, don't. 

Whenever you suspect a gas leak, immediately extinguish all 
open flame lights or any fire there may be in the neighborhood. 

Whenever the odor of gas inside a building is reported to you, 
endeavor first to ascertain if the gas is escaping from the appara- 
tus inside the building, or if the gas is leaking into the building 
from the soil outside or from adjoining premises. If the odor of 
gas is very noticeable, immediately open the windows to ventilate 
the premises. After making certain that no gas is being used in 
the premises, examine the test dial of the meter or meters to see if 
any gas is being passed. If no movement of the hand on a 2-foot 
test dial can be detected for ten minutes, with the gas pressure 
on the meter and no gas being used, it can be safely assumed that 
there is no leakage in the house piping and fixtures. If the hand 
on the test dial moves in this length of time with no gas being 
used, endeavor to locate the leak. If you can find it and it can 
be readily repaired, remedy the trouble. If it cannot be repaired 
at once, or if the leak is in apparatus which the consumer should 
stand the expense of repairing, soap up the leak temporarily and 
notify the consumer that you will have the trouble remedied, or 
tell him to get a plumber, as the case may be. 

* Set of instructions to plumbers and gas fitters; read at a meeting of 
the Ohio Gaslight Association, Cincinnati, Ohio, by John M. Robb of the 
Peoria Gas Co., Peoria, 111. 



334 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

If gas is coming into the building from without, inspect the 
adjoining premises if the house is one of a block, or notify the 
gas office at once if you suspect the leak to be either the service or 
mains in the street. 

Never under any circumstances leave a leak until you have 
remedied the trouble unless you are absolutely certain that it is 
of the most trivial character or have made absolutely certain the 
impossibility of an accident. 

In the case of a broken main accompanied by the escape of a 
large volume of gas the convenience of some of the consumers 
must be sacrificed. Locate the break as closely as possible from 
observations at the places where the escaping gas is noticed and 
then bag off the section of the main in which the leak is located. 

Leaks of this description are exceedingly dangerous and work 
must not cease until they are located and remedied. 

Do not hesitate to warn smoking bystanders or loiterers where 
repair work in which gas is escaping or likely to escape is being 
carried on. 

Asphyxiation. — Whenever a man has been overcome with 
gas it is the result of carelessness. A few simple precautions will 
prevent anybody from being gassed. As accidents will happen, 
however, these rules are given, so that in the event that such an 
emergency should arise you may know just what to do . Asphyxia- 
tion is the suspension of the vital functions from causes effecting 
the respiration or breathing. As long as the victim has not lost 
consciousness there is little cause for alarm. 

The first thing to do is, of course, to give the victim plenty of 
fresh air and then call a doctor. If he is able to move, keep him 
walking about, as the exercise helps the respiration. Give the 
victim a glass of weiss beer, vichy water or any other carbonated 
water, or if these are unobtainable give him a pint of water in 
which a teaspoonful of baking soda has been dissolved. If he is 
very weak, give him 30 drops of aromatic spirits of ammonia and 
repeat the dose every 5 to 15 minutes until four doses have been 
given. If more than four doses be given the patient will be 
nauseated. 

If the victim has lost consciousness, lay him on his back with 
a tightly rolled coat under his shoulders in order to throw his 
head well back. Open his clothes at the throat, chest and abdo- 
men. Roll up the trousers from the leg. Supply heat to the 
extremities, either by vigorous friction or by hot bricks, hot water 



RULES FOR GAS FITTING 335 

bottles, plates, etc. Pull the tongue out of the mouth and hold 
it firmly to prevent its slipping back and falling into the throat. 
Make the victim breathe by kneeling at his head, grasping his 
arms at the elbows and pressing them vigorously to his sides; 
then straighten the arms, pulling them back until the hands meet 
over the head; then return the arms to the sides, fold them across 
the chest, pressing them down hard. Repeat about four or five 
times a minute, being careful not to make the motions too rapidly. 
The sole object of the motions is to fill the lungs with air and 
empty them, in imitation of the natural breathing. 

During the entire process of artificial respiration have your 
assistants apply heat to the extremities, either by friction or by 
hot water bottles, bricks, plates, etc., and slap the chest with a 
wet towel. 

The restoration of asphyxiated persons has been accomplished 
at long periods after apparent death, so be prepared to continue 
your artificial respiration until a doctor pronounces the victim 
dead. 

The work to be effective is very tiresome and ten minutes at 
a stretch is about as long as one man can administer treatment 
effectively. On this account change operators before their 
strength is spent. 

When the victim begins to breathe naturally, give him a dose 
of aromatic spirits of ammonia, as before directed, and cover him 
up warmly until you can move him. 

To prevent Asphyxiation. — Never work on leaky gas mains 
or do work on mains or services in which gas must be allowed to 
escape until the trench has been made large enough to thoroughly 
ventilate it and afford ample working room. 

Never do such work in tunnels or under the overhanging banks 
of trenches unless you are especially instructed to do so by the 
superintendent and you are working under his guidance. 

When performing such work always station a man on the 
bank to keep the workers in sight and get them out of the ditch 
promptly if necessary. 

Every gang on such work must be provided with life belts and 
a rope long enough and strong enough to pull the men out of the 
trench. 

Never enter a house or building filled with gas without first 
providing the means for getting out quickly in case you are over- 
come. You can do this by attaching a rope to yourself when 



336 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



you enter and leaving the other end in charge of assistants, who 
can then get you out if necessary. 

These precautions may seem unnecessary to you, but you 
must remember them and use them should an emergency arise. 
Human life is precious and must not be exposed to danger heed- 
lessly. 

Soil and Vent Pipes. 

The soil and vent pipes of a building are usually of cast iron, 
wrought iron or steel; when wrought iron or steel pipes with 
thread connections are used it is known as a Durham System of 
plumbing. 

This system is used in the best work as it is more reliable and 
tighter than the cast iron pipes with lead joints. The wrought 
iron or steel pipe should not be used under ground and should 
always be coated to prevent rusting. Under ground cast iron 
pipes should always be used. 

Soil and vent stacks should be run as near vertical as possible 





Fig. 96. Difference between offsets made with Ells and Long Bends. 

and where any branches, bends or offsets are used they should 
be made with Y branches, long bends, etc. Fig. 96 shows the 
difference between an offset made with a \ elbow and one made 
with g bends. 

Where short bends or angles are made there should be a 
cleanout at this point as shown at 6, page 345. 

At various points in a soil system there should be provided 



SOIL AND VENT PIPES 



337 



flushing connections so that the entire system can be flushed 
out at any time. 

Pages 344 to 357 show the various soil pipe fittings as manu- 
factured and their names, and when laying out a soil system the 
plumber should select the fittings that will give the easiest bends 
and angles. 

Sizes of Soil Pipes. — The soil pipe from any closet fixture 
should not be less than 4 inches; the plumbing ordinances of the 
larger cities specify that the least diameter of any soil pipe 
permitted is 4 inches; this of course is the soil pipe to closets and 
does not include waste pipes from sinks and lavatories. 

Sizes of Waste Pipes. — Suitable size wastes for the various 
fixtures are as follows: 

Waste from bath, 1J to 2 inches in diameter. 

Branch, closet to soil pipe riser, 4 inches in diameter. 

Waste from urinal, 1^ inches. 

Waste from basin fixture, \\ or 1^ inches in diameter. 

Waste from single wash tub, 1^ inches in diameter. 

Waste from two or three wash tubs, l|-inch branch, and 
2-inch trap. 

Waste from pantry sink, 1^ inches in diameter. 

Waste from kitchen sink, 2 inches in diameter. 

Waste from slop sink, 2 to 3 inches in diameter. 

Waste from shower bath, 1^ inches in diameter. 




Fig. 97. Fresh Air Inlet. 



Fresh Air Inlet. — Every soil or drainage system to a 
building should have a fresh air inlet, which should be located 



338 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



immediately back of the main trap. When the trap is located 
inside the building the fresh air inlet should be run as shown by 
Fig. 97. 

Vent Pipes. — The vent pipe from the soil system should 
extend up through the roof in such a position or high enough to 
get a good draught. Just before passing through the roof it 
should be increased to give it a larger area and prevent it from 
becoming closed with frost. 

Size of Vents. — The size of vent pipe will depend on the 
number of stories of the building and the number of fixtures 
vented. The main vent for traps of water closets or for traps 
of other fixtures, in buildings of four stories and under, should be 
at least 2 inches in diameter. 

In buildings from four to six stories the vent should be not less 
than 2\ inches in diameter. 

Vent pipes for soil or waste stacks up to four inches in diameter 
should not be less than 2 inches, and for larger soil or waste 
stacks, should be of a diameter equal to half the diameter of the 
soil Or waste pipe to be vented. 

The following table gives the sizes on vent pipes as usually 
used: 

For traps 3 inches or larger, use a 2-inch vent. 
For traps 2 inches in diameter, use a 1^-inch vent. 
For traps \\ inches in diameter, use a 1^-inch vent. 

The rise or stack of 
vent or soil pipe should 
always be started from a 
foot rest fitting such as 
No. 12 on page 345, so as 
to carry the weight of the 
stack. 

Vent pipes should be so 
arranged that there will 
be no run of horizontal 
vent pipe over 12 feet. 

Roof Flange for 

Vent Pipes. — Fig. 98 

shows how the roof flange 

on a vent pipe can be 

made perfectly water-tight. There are several special makes of 

roof plates on the market but they require special fittings. The 




. Lead 

S, Oaku: 



Sheet lead flange 



Fig. 98. Vent Pipe Roof Connection. 



SOIL AND VENT PIPES 



339 



method shown by Fig. 98 is to turn a lead flange up around the 
vent pipe as shown and then slip a large size coupling over the 




Fig. 99. Various Pipe Hangers. 



pipe so as to lap down over the lead flange, then calk the coup- 
ling with oakum and run full of lead; then calk the lead and 
the job is completed and water-tight. 



340 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



SUPPORTING SOIL AND VENT PIPES. 

The vent and soil pipes should be securely anchored or hung 
with wrought iron hangers so that the entire line of pipe will be 
held firmly. Fig. 99 shows several different styles of hangers. 

No. 1 is a common U-hanger. 

No. 2 is a U-hanger with loops. 

No. 3 is a strap U-hanger. 

No. 4 is a soil pipe bracket. 

No. 5 is a combination pipe and I-beam clamp for risers. 

No. 6 is a hinge ring extension bar and beam clamp. 

No. 7 is a clamp for use in chases. 

No. 8 is a hanger with lag screw for wooden beams. 
When the soil or vent pipes are supported by hangers there 




Hanger 

Fig. 100. Wrought Iron Hangers. 



Hanger 



should be a hanger to each length of pipe as shown by Fig. 100. 
When the pipe runs near the floor it should be supported on 




Fig. 101. Soil Pipe on Supporting Legs. 



brick or pipe supporting piers as shown by Fig. 101, one to each 
length of pipe. 

Fig. 102 shows a pipe rest for soil pipe, the height of it being 
regulated by the length of the pipe leg of the rest. 



SOIL AND VENT PIPES 



341 



When the soil or vent pipe is run up a brick chase the pipe 
should be supported with pipe clamps such as shown by Fig. 103, 
the clamp being placed under the hub or 
coupling of the pipe, and the ends built 
into the brick work. 

Supporting Waste Pipes. — Waste 
pipes leading from wash stands, etc., 
should always be supported where they 
pass through the floors so as not to 
strain the trap by having the weight of 
the pipes hanging on it. 

If the pipe is lead a flange should be 
soldered or 
wiped on it at 
the floor as 
shown by Fig. 
104. 

Waste pipe 
flanges with 

slip joints are now made for brass pipes as shown by Fig. 105. 
This flange rests on the floor and carries the weight of the pipe. 





Fig. 102. Pipe Rests 
for Soil Pipes. 



Fig. 103. Wrought Iron Pipe 
Clamp. 




Fig. 104. Lead Riser supported at Floor. 



Fig. 105. Supporting Flange 
for Waste Pipes. 



Testing Soil and Vent Pipes. — After the vent, soil and drain 
pipes of a building are in place the entire system should be sub- 



342 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



jected to a hydrostatic or water test before any of the fixtures 
are put in place, and before any pipe or drain is covered up. 
The main outlet should be plugged outside the building and all 
outlets to fixtures, etc., in the building plugged; then the entire 
system should be filled with water to the roof level, or top of the 
vent pipe. This is the only absolutely sure test. 

In case of a tall building, one or two floors can be tested 
separately; the pipes being filled with water to a height to give the 
desired pressure for test. 

Pipes which show tight under a smoke or peppermint test will 
often develop leaks when put under the water test. When the 
pipes are filled with water let it stand several hours and then go 
over the entire system and examine every joint and piece of 
pipe. This is the only way to make certain all joints are tight. 

The pressure obtained with the water at various heights is as 
follows : 

5 feet of water will give a pressure of 2 pounds per square inch. 



10 


i a 


15 


i it 


20 


l a 


25 


t (t 


30 


I It 


35 


( it 


40 


t a 


45 


t a 


50 


c a 



« 4 < 


t a a it 


" 6 ' 


l a it a 


" 8 ' 


c it It it 


" 10 ' 


i a it a 


" 13 ' 


t a tt it 


tt 15 i 


t ' a it a 


" 17 ' 


t a tt tt 


" 19 ' 


t a a n 


" 21 ' 


t a a a 



Smoke or Peppermint Test. — After the fixtures are all in 
place and connected up, the smoke or peppermint test should be 
given to test if all traps are sealed and connections tight. The 
smoke machine, of which Figs. 106 and 107 are types, should 
be connected with the pipe system at as low a point as possible, 
and if convenient in a room that can be closed up to prevent the 
smell of the smoke or peppermint from permeating through the 
building. After the entire system is pumped full of smoke or 
air carrying the odor of the peppermint, and a pressure of about 
5 pounds or more per square foot is raised, all the fixtures and 
connections should be examined by some person who has 
just come in from the fresh air, and who will be able to locate the 
smell of smoke at any point. 

When it is desired to make the water test after the fixtures 
are connected up, the connections have to be broken and sealed up. 



SOIL AND VENT PIPES 



343 



If it is a union connection it can be sealed by removing the 
gasket and inserting in its place a lead washer the size of the 




caja 



Fig. 106. Smoke Testing Machine. 




in* 



Fig. 107. Smoke and Peppermint Testing Machine. 

large diameter of the gasket, and screwing the union tight ; if it is 

a lead pipe with putty joint the pipe must be closed and soldered. 

Closets have to be lifted off and a sheet of lead soldered over 



344 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

the opening. Provisions should always be made for testing 
when the piping is put in place, and the test made before the 
fixtures are set. The connection to the street sewer should not 
be made until after the test so the pipe can be plugged at this 
point outside the building. If there is a cleanout plug near this 
point a plug can be inserted and the pipe stopped. 

It is a good idea to have the lead ends and brass ferrules for 
closets, etc., put in the pipe before the water test is made, as 
the test then will show up any sand holes in the brass ferrules 
if there should be any. 

Names, Sizes, etc., of Soil Pipe Fittings. 

For weight of fittings, see page 199. Figs. 108 to 116 show the 
various fittings for soil and vent pipes. Their names are as 
follows : 

1. Quarter bend. 

2. Quarter bend, with heel inlet. 

3. Quarter bend, with side inlet. 

4. Quarter bend, with double hub. 

5. Increasing quarter bend. 

6. Increasing quarter bend, with cleanout. 

7. Long quarter bend. 

8. Long quarter bend, with foot rest. 

9. Long quarter bend, with hand hole and foot rest. 

10. Double hub eighth bend. 

11. Milwaukee or Reilly Bend. 

12. Double hub elbow, with foot rest. 

13. Fifth bend. 

14. Milwaukee or Reilly Bend, with foot rest. 

15. Short sanitary elbow. 

16. Double quarter bend. 

17. Sixth bend. 

18. Eighth bend. 

19. Increasing eighth bend. 

20. Increasing eighth bend, with cleanout. 

21. Long eighth bend. 

22. Sixteenth bend. 

• 23. Double hub sixteenth bend. 

24. Tee branch. 

25. Tee branch, with side outlet. 

26. Tee branch, with trap screw on side. 

27. Long tee branch. 

28. Tee branch, tapped for iron pipe. 











, 








1 


{ 


y 





16 



I ill 



24 25 

Fig. 108. Soil Pipe Fittings. 




346 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

29. Tee branch, all hub ends. 

30. Sanitary tee. 

31. Sanitary tee, with side inlet. 

32. Long sanitary tee. 

33. Sanitary tee, with brass trap screw on side. 

34. Sanitary tee, all hub ends. 

35. Special reducing sanitary tee branch. 

36. Sanitary tee branch, tapped for iron pipe. 

37. Inverted sanitary tee branch, tapped for iron pipe. 

38. "Y" branch. 

39. "Y" branch, with side inlet. 

40. " Y " branch, with brass trap screw on side. 

41. Long " Y " branch. 

42. Special reducing " Y" branch. 

43. Inverted " Y " branch. 

44. Inverted " Y " branch, tapped for iron pipe. 

45. Half "Y" branch. 

46. Half " Y" branch, with side inlet. 

47. Half " Y " branch, with brass trap screw on side. 

48. Long half "Y" branch. 

49. Cross or double tee. 

50. Cross, with side inlet. 

51. Cross, with brass trap screw on side. 

52. Cross, all hub ends. 

53. Cross, tapped for iron pipe. 

54. Sanitary cross or double sanitary tee. 

55. Sanitary cross, with side inlet. 

56. Sanitary cross, with brass trap screw on side. 

57. Sanitary cross, all hub ends. 

58. Sanitary cross, tapped for iron pipe. 

59. Double " Y " branch. 

60. Double " Y" branch, with side inlet. 

61. Double "Y " branch, with brass trap screw on side. 

62. Double half " Y " branch. 

63. Double half " Y " branch, with side inlet. 

64. Double half " Y " branch, with brass trap screw on side. 

65. Double angle branch. 

66. Monitor branch (made with four branches only). 

67. Ventilating branch. 

68. Ventilating branch, tapped for iron pipe. 

69. Tee cleanout, round hand hole and cover. 

70. Tee cleanout, square hand hole and cover. 

71. Square tee "Sure Seal " cleanout. 

72. Sanitary tee " Sure Seal " cleanout. 

73. "Y"" Sure Seal "cleanout. 




*6 47 

Fig. 109. Soil Pipe Fittings. 



T| 

1 

I! 

t. j!uj 

48 


• 



(347) 



348 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

74. Combination " Y " and eighth bend. 

75. Upright "Y " branch or combination "Y" and eighth 

bend. 

76. Boston "TY " or sanitary tee branch, long pattern. 

77. Boston "TY " or sanitary tee branch, short pattern. 

78. Boston "TY" or sanitary tee branch, with 2-inch top 

vent. 

79. Boston long "TY," with 2-inch top vent. 

80. Offset. 

81. Offset, with 2-inch vent. 

82. Offset, with 2-inch heel inlet. 

83. Offset, with 2-inch side inlet. 

84. Milwaukee sanitary offset. 

85. Increaser, for calking. 

86. Increaser, tapped for iron pipe. 

87. Short increaser, tapped for iron pipe. 

88. Increaser and offset, for calking. 

89. Increaser and offset, tapped for iron pipe. 

90. Increaser and ventilating branch, with straight side 

outlet for calking. 

91. Increaser and vent branch, with bent side outlet for 

calking. 

92. Increaser, with straight side outlet, tapped for iron 

pipe. 

93. Long increaser, for calking. 

94. Long increaser, tapped for iron pipe. 

95. Long increaser, for calking, with hub branch on side. 

96. Long increaser, for calking, with side branch tapped 

for iron pipe. 

97. Long increaser, for calking, with two side branches 

tapped for iron pipe. 

98. Long increaser, for calking," with bent side branch 

tapped for iron pipe. 

99. Ventilating cap, spigot end. 

100. Ventilating cap, hub end. 

101. Long ventilating cap, spigot end. 

102. Long ventilating cap, hub end. 

103. Single hub. 

104. Double hub. 

105. Straight sleeve. 

106. Reducer. 

107. Thimble. 

108. Thimble, with hand hole and cover. 

109. Extension piece. 



r. il ll jP 




Fig. 110. Soil Pipe Fittings. 




(350) 



Fig. 111. Soil Pipe Fittings. 



NAMES, SIZES, ETC., OF SOIL PIPE FITTINGS 351 

Green House Fittings. 

110. Return bend, single hub. 

111. Return bend, double hub. 

112. Return bend, spigot back outlet. 

113. Return bend, hub back outlet. 

114. "H" branch, hub ends. 

115. Double elbow. 

116. Triple elbow. 

117. Quadruple elbow. 

118. Three-way branch. 

Special Fittings. 

119. Reducer. 

120. Increaser. 

121. Graduated closet fitting. 
122.A 

123 I 

194 f Flanged closet fittings. 

125J 

Traps. 

126. Full "S" trap. 

127. Three-quarter "S" trap. 

128. Half "S" or" P" trap. 

129. Running trap. 

130. Full "S," with hand hole and cover. 

131. Three-quarter "S," with hand hole and cover. 

132. Half "S" or "P," with hand hole and cover. 

133. Running trap, with hand hole and cover. 

134. Full "S," with top vent. 

135. Three-quarter "S," with top vent. 

136. Half "S" or "P," with top vent and brass trap screw 

on side. 

137. Running trap, with hub for vent. 

138. Running trap, with hubs for double vent. 

139. Baltimore regulation running trap, with hubs for 

double vents. 

140. Full "S" trap, with top vent and brass trap screw on 

side. 

141. Three-quarter "S" trap, with top vent and brass trap 

screw on side. 

142. Half "S" of "P" trap, with top vent and brass trap 

screw on side. 

143. Full "S," with hand hole and cover and 2-inch heel 

inlet. 




106 



(352) 



Fig. 112. Soil Pipe Fittings. 




121 






Fig. 113. Soil Pipe Fittings. 



(353) 



354 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

144. Three-quarter " S " trap, with hand hole and cover 

and 2-inch heel inlet. 

145. Half "S" or "P" trap, with hand hole and cover and 

2-inch heel inlet. 

146. Full "S" trap, with hand hole and cover and 2-inch 

side inlet. 

147. Three-quarter " S " trap, with hand hole and cover and 

2-inch side inlet. 

148. Half "S" or "P" trap, with hand hole and cover and 

2-inch side inlet. 

149. Running trap with "Y" branch and vent. 

150. "Sure Seal" trap, full "S." 

151. "Sure Seal" trap, three-quarter "S." 

152. "Sure Seal" trap, half "S" or "P." 

153. "Sure seal" trap, running. 

154. Deep "Sure Seal" trap, full "S." 

155. Deep "Sure Seal" trap, three-quarter "S." 

156. Deep "Sure Seal" trap, half "S" or "P." 

157. Deep "Sure Seal" trap, running. 

158. Deep "Sure Seal" trap, combination. 



Special Cast Iron Drainage Fittings, Screw Threads. 

159. Long turn elbow. 

160. Long turn forty- five degree elbow. 

161. Sixty-degree elbow. 

162. Forty-five degree bend. 

163. Forty-five degree reducing "Y." 

164. Twenty-two and one-half degree bend. 

165. Eleven and one-fourth degree bend. 

166. Forty-five degree "Y." 

167. Forty-five degree double "Y." 

168. Sixty-degree "Y." 

169. "Y" branch, "T" pattern. 

170. Five and five-eighths degree bend. 

171. Three-way elbow. 

172. Cross. 

173. Elbow with cleanout. 

174. Closet tee. 

175. Closet tee. 

176. Base elbow, with cleanout. 

177. Base elbow, with cleanout, cast iron pipe to wrought 

iron pipe. 

178. Elbow with shoe. 

179. Basin tee. 





144 



,3^3 



145 
Fig. 114. Soil Pipe Fittings. 




146 



(355) 




(356) 



Fig. 115. Soil Pipe Fittings. 




174 



175 






177 



179 



Pig. 116. Soil Pipe Pittings for " Durham System." (357) 



358 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LIST OF STANDARD SIZES OF CAST-IRON FITTINGS. 

ADOPTED AT MEETING OF MAKERS OF CAST-IRON FITTINGS 
JUNE 24, 1897. 

Sizes differing from standard sizes, if furnished, are to be 
charged at 5 per cent gross discount higher than standard 
sizes. 

STRAIGHT SIZES. 



Elbows and Tees — \ to 


Y Branches — J to 10 


Offsets— | to 6 to off- 


12 inch. 


inch. 


set 4 inch, 6 inch, 


Elbows: 45°— § to 12 


Elbows: right and 


and 8 inch. 


inch. 


left — \ to 3 inch. 


Plugs — \ to 12 inch. 


Return Bends — f to 3 inch. 


Crosses — J to 12 inch. 


Flange Unions — \ to 


Caps and Locknuts — 2 to 




12 inch. 


12 inch. 









ELBOWS — REDUCING SIZES. 




*X | 


Hx 1 


2 XU 


3 X2i 


4 X2i 


8X6 


IX } 


ilx i 


2 Xli 


3 X2 


4^X4 




1 X f 


Hxii 


2 XI 


3JX3 


5 X4 




1 X i 


Hxi 


2JX2 


4 X3i 


6 X5 




HX1 


HX f 


2JXli 


4 X3 


6 X4 





REDUCING COUPLINGS. 



2^X2 


3^X3 


4 X2i 


5 X4 


6 X5 


8X 6 


2iXli 


3|X2i 


4 X2 


5 X3 


6 X4 


10X 8 


3 X2£ 


4 X3i 


4^X4 




6 X3 


12X10 


3 X2 


4 X3 






7 X6 





TEES — BULL HEAD. 

Tees with both ends of run the same size, with the outlet 
o 
larger, thus: are known as Bull Head, and are 

read, 1X2. 1 ' 1 



IX h 


IX 1* 


HX2 


2 X2i 


3iX4 


6X7 


|X 1 


|X 1 


HXU 


2^X4 


4 X6 




*x | 


1 X2 


liX2i 


2^X3 


4 X5 




|X2 


i xn 


HX2 


3 X4 


5 X6 




ixi* 


1 XH 


2 X3 


3 X3i 


6 X8 





NAMES, SIZES, ETC., OF SOIL PIPE FITTINGS 359 



LIST OF CAST-IRON FITTINGS — Continued. 

TEES — REDUCING ON RUN. 
Tees reducing on run, thus: .* 



are read, 2X11X11- 







a J-2 




lx IX 1 


Hx ixih 


3 X21X2 


4X2 X 4 


lx tx f 


Hx fxH 


3 X21X11 


4X2 X 3 


fx ixi 


Hx ixi 


3 X 21X11 


4X2 X 21 


fx lx f 


Hx lx f 


3 X21X1 


4X2 X 2 


lx lx 1 


HX ixil 


3 X2 X3 


4X2 X H 


fx |X 1 


Hx ixil 


3 X2 X21 


4X11X 4 


IX |X | 


2 XHX 21 


3 X2 X2 


4XHX 4 


1 X 1X2 


2 XHX2 


3 X2 XH 


4X1 X 4 


i x ixu 


2 xHXH 


3 X2 XH 


5X4 X 5 


1 X fxH 


2 xHXH 


3 X2 XI 


5X4 X 5 


1 X |X1 


2 XHX1 


3 XHX 3 


5X4 X 4 


1 X |X f 


2 XHX f 


3 X HX21 


5X4 X 3 


1 x fx 1 


2 XHX 1 


3 X11X2 


5X4 X 21 


1 X ixi 


2 XHX2 


3 XHX3 


5X4 X 2 


ix|x! 


2 XHXH 


3 XI X3 


5X3 X 5 


1 x lx 1 


2 xHXH 


31X3 X3 


5X3 X 4 


1 X |X 1 


2 XHX1 


31X3 X21 


5X3 X 3 


HX1 X2 


2 XHX 1 


31X3 X2 


5X3 X 21 


Hxi xH 


2 XI X2 


31X3 XH 


5X3 X 2 


HXI X1J 


2 XI XH 


31X21X3 


5X21X 5 


HX1 XI 


2 XI XH 


31X21X21 


5X21X 4 


HX1 X f 


2 XI XI 


31X21X2 


5X21X 3 


Hxi x 1 


2X1X1 


31X2 X31 


5X2 X 5 


HX fX2 


2 X |X2 


31X11X31 


6X5 X 6 


Hx |x H 


2 x ixii 


31X11X31 


6X5 X 5 


Hx fxH 


2 X 1X2 


31X1 X31 


6X4 X 6 


Hx fxi 


21X2 X3 


4 X 31X31 


6X3 X 6 


Hx fx f 


2JX2 X2J 


4 X31X3 


6X21X 6 


Hx ixil 


2^X2 X2 


4 X 31X21 


7X6 X 7 


Hx IX H 


2^X2 XH 


4 X3 X4 


7X6 X 6 


HXHX2 


2^X2 XH 


4 X3 X31 


7X6 X 5 


HXl X2 


2JX2 XI 


4 X3 X3 


7X5 X 5 


HX 1X2 


22 X HX 2^ 


4 X3 X21 


8X7 X 6 


llxiixil 


2iXHX2 


4 X3 X2 


8X6 X 8 


ihxnxH 


2JXHXH 


4 X3 XH 


8X6 X 7 


HxHxi 


2ixHXH 


4 X3 XH 


8X6 X 6 


nxnx f 


21X1JX-1 


4 X3 XI 


8X5 X 8 


ljxux 1 


21XHX21 


4X3X1 


8X5 X 5 


Hxi XH 


21X11X2 


4 X21X 


8X4 X 8 


Hxi XH 


21X1 X21 


4 X21X3 


10X8 X 8 


Hxi xi 


21X 1X21 


4 X 21X2-1 


12X8 X10 


Hxi x 1 


3 X21X3 


4 X21X2 


12X8 X 8 


Hxi x l 


3 X 21X21 


4 X 21X11 







360 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

LIST OF CAST-IRON FITTINGS — Continued. 
TEES — REDUCING ON OUTLET. 



Tees which reduce on the outlet, thus: 
2X1*. 2- 



J are read, 



hx | 


2 XH 


3 XH 


4 XH 


5 X2 


8X 5 


IX * 


2XU 


3 XI 


4 Xli 


5X1| 


8X 4 


IX f 


2 XI 


3Xf 


4 XI 


5 XH 


8X3i 


i x ! 


2 X f 


3|X3 


4 X f 


6 X5 


8X 3 


1 x h 


2 X } 


3^X21 


4-^X4 


6 X4 


8X2^ 


1 x | 


2JX2 


3^X2 


4JX3J 


6 X3J 


8X 2 


1|X1 


2|XH 


O^X ±2 


4£X3 


6 X3 


10X 8 


Hx f 


2*X11 


3|XH 


4iX2i 


6 X2| 


10X 6 


Hx \ 


2|X1 


3^X1 


4|X2 


6 X2 


10X 5 


HXH 


2iX f 


4 X3i 


5 X4 


7 X6 


10X 4 


1|X1 


3 X2i 


4 X3 


5 X3i 


7 X5 


12X10 


Hx f 


3 X2 


4 X2i 


5 X3 


7 X4 


12X 8 


HX i 


3XH 


4 X2 


5 X2i 


8 X6 


12X 6 



CROSSES — REDUCING SIZES. 



The outlets of a cross are always the same size, and are 



indicated by the last figure. Thus: A cross f 
called a |Xi cross. 



A cross reducing on the run, thus: H- 
a HXHXl cross. 



H is called 



hx f 


Hx f 


2 XH 


2iX ! 


3JX3 


5 X4 


6 X3 


10X 8 


hx I 


Hx * 


2 XI 


3 X2i 


3*X2| 


5 X3 


6 X2^ 


10X 7 


IX f 


i*xii 


2 X f 


3 X2 


3JX2 


5 X2i 


6 X2 


12X10 


IX * 


Hxi 


2|X2 


3 XH 


4 X3i 


5 X2 


7 X6 


12X 8 


1 X f 


Hx ! 


2JXH 


3 XH 


4 X3 


6 X5 


7 X5 




1 X h 


Hx \ 


2*XH 


3 XI 


4 X2J 


6 X4 


8 X7 




liXl 


2 XH 


2JX1 


3 X 1 


4 X2 


6 X3| 


8 X6 





VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS. 361 



LIST OF CAST-IRON FITTINGS — Continued. 

BUSHINGS. 

Note. — Bushings reducing one size only, up to and includ- 
ing 2\ inches, are malleable, and will be found, therefore, listed 
among the malleable fittings. 



ix 1 

fx | 

IX I 
1 X i 
1 X f 

i x i 
Hx ! 
Hx } 
HX ! 
Hxi 



Hx f 


3 X2i 


3iXl 


4JX3 


6X4 


7X3 


Hx 1 


3 X2 


4 X3i 


4iX2i 


6X3^ 


7X2i 


2X11 


3 XH 


4 X3 


5 X4i 


6X3 


7X2 


2 XI 


3 XH 


4 X2i 


5 X4 


6X2i 


8X7 


2Xf 


3 XI 


4 X2 


5 X3i 


6X2 


8X6 


2X| 


3^X3 


4 XH 


5 X3 


7X6 


8X5 


2*XH 


3^X21 


4 XH 


5 X2i 


7X5 


8X4 


2iXH 


3^X2 


4 XI 


5 X2 


7X4i 


8X3 


2*X1 


3JXH 


4^X4 


6 X5 


7X4 


9X8 


2JX f 


3JXH 


4^X3i 


6 X4i 


7X3J 


9X7 



9X 6 
10X 8 
10X 6 
12X10 
12X 8 
12X 6 



Various Methods, Hints and Short Cuts. 

Plumbers' Portable Work Bench. — Fig. 117 shows how 
to construct a portable work bench, which is very useful for 
plumbers, steam fitters, etc. The frame and legs are made as 




Fig. 117. Plumbers' Portable Work Bench. 

shown of pipe, the four legs and brace being fastened to the top 
with floor flanges as shown at A and B. A short nipple is 



362 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



screwed in the flange and the legs and brace connected to the 
nipple with a union connection as shown. When not in use or 
to be transported, the unions are opened and the frame will then 
turn so it will lay flat, the legs turning down 
on a plane with the longitudinal brace of the 
frame. To set up the bench the legs are 
turned at right angles to the longitudinal 
brace, placed in position under the top and 
the unions screwed together. 





Fig. 118. Improvised 
Plumb Bob. 



Fig. 119. Holding Lead Waste to 
Flange it. 



An Improvised Plumb Bob. — A handy plumb bob can be 
made by cutting out a stick and screwing onto it a couple of nuts 
as shown by Fig. 118. This can be made in a few moments and 
makes a very good bob. 




Fig. 120. Starting Cleanout Plugs. 



To Hold Waste Pipe while Turning Flange.* — When 

flanging the end of a lead waste pipe which extends up through 

the floor, take a strong string or piece of twine and put it around 

the pipe in the form of a slip knot as shown by Fig. 119; now by 

* From " The Metal Worker," by permission. 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 363 

means of this string the pipe can be held up while the flange is 
being turned with the turn pin. 

To Remove Brass Cleanout Plugs. — Brass cleanout plugs 
which are hard to start may be started by giving a steady pull 
on the monkey wrench and then striking it a few sharp blows 
with a hammer as shown by Fig. 120. 




Fig. 121. Names of Parts of Valves. 



Globe Valves. 



Case 

Bonnet 

Plug 

Stem 

Washer for plug 

Nut for plug 

Packing nut 

8 Packing gland 

9 Hand Wheel 



Check Valves. 

1 Case 
12 Bonnet 

3 Plug 
14 Valve 

5 Washer for plug 

6 Nut for plug 



364 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Water Tank Indicator or Gauge. — Fig. 122 shows how 
to construct an indicator for reading the depth of water in a 
tank. The indicator is made by attaching a gear wheel to the 




Fig. 122. Water Tank Gauge. 



arm of the indicator as shown, the gear of the wheel engaging 
with the rack gear of the slide C. One end of this slide is con- 
nected by a chain to the float in the tank and the other end is 
connected to a weight as shown at E. When the tank is empty 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 365 



the float will draw the slide along and move the indicator hand to 
0, and as the tank fills with water the float is raised and the 
weight draws the slide along, thus moving the hand along the 
dial, showing the exact depth of water in the tank. Or an 
indicator can be arranged as shown at F with the pointer fastened 
on the chain as shown. 

To Start Stoppage in a Drain Pipe.* — When a drain pipe 
becomes stopped up and cleaning out the trap does not remedy 




Fig. 123. Starting Stoppage in Waste. 

the trouble, fill the sink or basin partly full of water and lay a 
wooden block about eight inches square on the water over the 
outlet. Take a piece of stick and holding it as shown by Fig. 123, 
strike several sharp blows with a hammer. The shock of the 
blows forces the water into the pipe and has a tendency to start 
any stoppage. 

Vise Used as Drill Press.* — An ordinary vise can be used 
as a drill press, as shown by Fig. 124. A small hole is drilled in 
the face of one of the jaws of the vise into which the head of the 
drill ratchet is inserted, the drill then being turned in the usual 
way. 

Drills for Brick or Stone. — For drilling in brick or stone 
have the drill made with double cutters as shown by Fig. 125; 
* From " Popular Mechanics." 



366 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



it will cut much faster and make a straighter hole than a drill 
with one cutting edge. 

To Locate an Obstruction in a Flue.* — Fig. 126 shows 
how an obstruction in a flue may be located with the assistance 
of a mirror. The 
mirror is held in the 
flue at an angle to 
show a reflection of 
the flue, looking up. 

To Split a Belt. 
— Take a short piece 
of board or plank, 
and on it tack two 
strips of wood of the 
thickness of the belt, 
and of the width of 
the belt apart. On 
top of these strips 
nail another short 

piece of board, thus making an opening between the two boards 
just large enough for the belt to pass through, as shown by Fig. 




Fig. 124. Vice used as a Drill Press. 



Fig. 125. Drill with Double Cutter Face 

127. Now drive a knife blade 
in the lower plank in such a 
position as to cut the belt to the 
desired width, shove the belt 
through and take hold of the two 
ends of the belt A and B and pull 
the belt through, thus splitting it 
in two pieces on the knife as shown. 

To Sling a Pipe. — Fig. 128 
shows how to hitch to a pipe to be 
hoisted on end. A hitch of this 
kind will not slip. 

To Find the Circumference of a Circle with the Two- 
Foot Rule. — Measure up from the center hinge of the rule 
* From " The Metal Worker." 




Fig. 126, 



Locating an Obstruc- 
tion in a Flue. 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 367 



3£§ inches as shown in Fig. 129. Spread the blades of the rule 
until the distance between these two points equals the diameter 
of the circle. Then the distance between the two ends of the 
rule will equal the circumference. 

In Fig. 129 the diameter is shown as 1^ inches and the cir- 
cumference then is 3jf inches. 

To find the diameter when the circumference is known, make 
the distance between the two ends of the rule equal the eir- 




Fig. 127. Splitting a Belt. 

cumference. Then the distance between the two 
points 3^§ inches from the center of the hinge will 
equal the diameter. 

To Crimp a Stove Pipe. — To crimp a stove 
pipe without a crimper, slip the pipe over the end 
of a studding, and with a dull chisel or hatchet 
crimp it as shown by Fig. 130. 

Connecting a Hot Water Heater or Water 
back to Boiler. — The correct method of con- 
necting a hot water heater or water back to the 
boiler, to insure circulation is very simple, yet proves a "puzzle " 
to a good many plumbers. Fig. 131 shows how the connections 
should be made, A being the boiler and B the heater. 

To Connect a Hot Water Heater to Boiler in Conjunc- 
tion with a Water Front. — Fig. 132 shows how a hot water 
heater can be connected to a boiler and used in conjunction with 



Fig. 128. Hitch 
to Hoist Pipe. 



368 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



a water front in a range, or the gas heater used independently. 

The supply from the heater being connected to the hot water 

q^ 1 [ ^^ supply from the boiler allows 

**" hot water to be drawn direct 
from the heater without it 
passing into the boiler. 
Connected in this manner 
allows either the water front 
or heater to be used to heat 
the water in the boiler and 
by placing a valve at A the 
circulation of the boiler can 
be cut off and water drawn 
direct from the heater when 
used in warm weather. 

Connecting a Hot Water 
Boiler to Two Sources of 
Heat. — Fig. 133 shows how 
the connections should be 
made to a hot water boiler 
when it is desired to use two 
sources of heat, as a coil in 
the furnace in winter and a 
water front in the kitchen 
range, or a gas heater in 
summer. As shown, either 
source of heat can be used 
independently. In case both 




I 



J 



Fig. 130. Crimping Stove Pipe. 



Fig. 129. To find Circum- 
ference of Circle with 
a Rule. 



sources of heat are to be used at the 
same time, the return from the boiler 
should be run direct to the coil in the 

furnace and the flow from the coil run through the water front 

or heater to the boiler. 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 369 



To fasten a Hose to a Pipe. — To fasten a hose to a piece 
of pipe where there is to be some pressure and danger of the 
hose slipping off, as is often the case when blowing out boiler 
tubes with steam, take a short piece of pipe as A (Fig. 134), 
and swedge the end of it out bell shape as shown; now work the 
u hose over the bell part of the pipe 
'ixtures jT "f Boiler Supply ' and put on a clamp as at B. The 
more strain on the pipe now, the 
tighter it gets. The pipe can now 
be connected up with a union 
wherever desired. 



Hot to Fixtures 



m 



Fig. 131. Heater to Boiler 
Connection. 




Bases of Electric 
Lamps. — Fig. 135 shows 
the different bases used 
by manufacturers in mak- 
ing electric lamps. In 
ordering lamps 
it is always 
necessary to 
specify the 
socket of the fix- 
tures so the 
lamps will fit: Fig. 132. 
as "Edison," 
"T-H,"etc. 

Inserting Gaskets. — When inserting a gasket between two 
flanges that cannot be separated to any great distance there is 
often trouble to get the gasket into position between the flanges. 
To overcome this trouble take a piece of stiff paper and fold as 
shown by Fig. 136 with the gasket between the paper; now the 
paper and gasket can be slipped in between the flanges with 



Connecting Hot Water Heater and "Water 
Front to same Boiler. 



370 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



little trouble, and after one or two bolts are put in place the paper 
can be taken out. 

Cutting Gaskets. — When cutting rubber gaskets keep the 
cutter or knife blade wet with water and it will cut much easier. 




Fig. 133. Connecting Boiler to Two Sources of Heat. 



To remove an Old Gasket. — To remove a gasket when the 
flanges of the pipes can be separated but very little is usually a 
difficult problem unless a length of pipe is taken out. A simple 
way to remove the gasket is to drive a cold chisel in the lower 
side of the joint sufficient to loosen the flanges and then take an 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 371 

old saw and run in through the joint, sawing out the gasket; 
after sawing partly through, drive the cold chisel in the top of 



Fig. 134. Pipe Swedged to prevent Hose blowing off . 

the joint to keep the flanges from pinching the saw and saw out 
the balance of the gasket. 






Standard Edison 
Screw Base. 



Westinghotjse 
Base. 

Tig. 135. Bases of Electric Lamps. 



Thomson-Houston 



Pipe-Bending Former. — Fig. 137 shows a former for bend- 
ing pipe to a radius. The body of the former should be made 




Fig. 136. Method of inserting a Gasket. 



out of 2-inch plank with the desired radius cut on one end as 
shown. This edge of the plank is then grooved so the pipe to be 
bent will lay in the groove. Two strap bands are put on to hold 



372 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



the pipe in position on top of the plank. The straight piece of 
pipe is placed in position under the small wheel in the lever 
and through the strap bands; then the lever is pulled forward 
to bend the pipe as shown. This device is very handy for mak- 
ing the bends in electric wire conduits. 

Bending Pipe. — Pipe up to f inch can be bent to form turns, 
offsets, etc. A tool called the "Hicky " is often used for bend- 
ing the pipe. It is made with a tee large enough to pass over 




SECTION 



Fig. 137. Pipe Bending Former. 



the pipe to be bent and a piece of pipe screwed in the side outlet 
of the tee for a handle or lever. The tool is used as shown in 
Fig. 138 and is very handy for bending pipe, conduits, etc. 
For some bends or offsets it is necessary to use two "Hickys " 
as shown. 

For bending large pipe use the pipe as a lever if there is any 
place convenient to obtain a purchase on the pipe. If there 
is no such place handy, rig up a frame of studding as shown by 
Fig. 139; with this arrangement it is possible to bend pipe up to 
two inches. 

To Melt up Old Lead Pipe, etc.* — Fig. 140 shows an 

* From " Popular Mechanics." 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 373 

arrangement of a piece of cast iron soil pipe and a blow-pipe 
furnace. The pipe is hung as shown with the flame entering the 
lower end. The lead pipe to be melted is shoved in at the top 





Fig. 138. Bending Pipe with a " Hicky." 

end of the pipe. Lead melts very rapidly in this contrivance 
and pure lead is the result, as the dross and dirt is burned up. 
Street Service Connections. — Water companies, generally, 




Fig. 139. Method of Bending Pipe. 



and some gas companies, will not permit their mains to be tapped 
larger than 1 inch, because of the danger of splitting the pipe if 
weakened with a larger tapping, yet it is often necessary to 
provide a service of greater capacity than 1 inch, and when this 



374 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



is necessary several 1-inch tappings are made and connected at 
the outlet end for larger service. It is expensive as well as 
inconvenient to insert a tee in the main, as this would necessitate 




Fig. 140. Lead Melting Device, 

cutting the main and shutting off the water; hence service 
branches are usually put in as described above and shown by 
Fig. 141, the several connections to give the desired supply 




Fig. 141. Street Service Connection. 



being connected to a large cross pipe as shown, which is in turn 
connected to the service main. 

Fig. 142 shows a water connection manufactured by James B. 
Clow & Sons. The inlet connections are all made for use with 
lead or iron pipe to the main, and have union joints. The 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 375 

outlet connection is also made with union joint and for lead or 
iron pipe. 

Wherever used they give excellent satisfaction, and are a great 
improvement over the old method of making large connections, 
and are much cheaper. 

Measuring Pipe and Fittings. — When taking the lengths 




Fig. 142. Correct Method of taking Pipe Measurements. 

of runs of pipe always take the measurement to the center of the 
fittings, as shown by Fig. 143. 

To Put on a Valve or Stop-Cock without Shutting off 
the Water. — It often happens that it is desired to put a valve 




Fig. 143. Clows' Street Service Connection. 



or stop-cock in a pipe where it is inconvenient to shut off the 
water or gas. Fig. 144 shows how this can be done. Take a 
short piece of pipe and screw on the cock or valve ; then cut the 
main or pipe near a coupling; remove the coupling, leaving the 
threaded end of the pipe clear; now take the piece of pipe with 



376 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



the valve on and holding it in the position shown screw it on the 
pipe. Have the cock or valve open so the water can pass through 
it ; after it is screwed firmly on the pipe the valve or cock can be 
closed. 

Sewer Cleaner. — Fig. 145 shows a sewer rod or cleaner 
used by the Post Plumber at Fort D. A. Russell, Wyo. It has 




Fig. 144. Screwing on Stop-Cock without shutting off Water. 

been used effectively up to 150 feet. As shown, the handle or 
rod is made in sections of any desired length, the hook joint being 
of such construction that it cannot come apart when in the pipe. 
Fig. 146 shows a spring steel sewer rod; this is very flexible 
and will turn curves and elbows. 



fcxHf 



M\I\f 



%" 



&/" Thick 



J 4e 



1 C 



^—-y % 



m 



%" 



Fig. 145. Device for cleaning Sewers. 



To Build a Cesspool. — Fig. 147 shows the general con- 
struction of a cesspool, which will give good satisfaction. The 
inlet is intended to empty into the small chamber as shown 
where all solid matter will be deposited and the liquids will be 
drawn off into the large chamber. If desired to have an outlet 
of overflow it can be put in the large chamber as shown. If the 
cesspoolis built in porous soil or gravel the cement bottom can 
be omitted and the liquid allowed to percolate through the soil 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 377 

or gravel. The walls of the cesspool can be built either of brick 
or concrete. 

Septic Cesspool. — The ordinarily constructed cesspool of 




Fig. 146. Flexible Steel Sewer Rod. 

one chamber as is largely used is satisfactory so long as the soil 
or gravel in which it is built does not become clogged with the 
grease and solids of the sewage. This may occur in a very short 




Fig. 147. Construction of Cesspool. 



time in case the soil or gravel is not very porous. The bottom 
soon becomes choked with sediment and grease, and the water 
line rises, thus bringing fresh surfaces around the sides in use. 



378 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



These gradually close with the floating grease, etc., forcing the 
water line still higher and higher until the pool is full and nearly- 
water-tight. 

To overcome this objection Fred K. Betts, Assistant Engineer 
of the Department of Water Supply of New York, has designed 
a cesspool as shown by Fig. 148. 

The design shows a septic tank and leaching pool in the one 
construction. The aim of the design is to arrest the sediment 



-Box Drain around 

Top o£ Cobbles Inlet Sewer. 

Manhole \ Surface of GrounoS 




Cobble Stones 



Fig. 148. Septic Cesspool, designed by Fred. K. Betts. 



and scum and bring only comparatively clear liquid in contact 
with the absorbing surfaces, thereby prolonging the life and 
usefulness of the cesspool. By proportioning the tight inner 
chamber so as to have a capacity for about 36 hours' output, 
septic action may, it is stated, take place without purification 
and the attending odor and gases. 

As shown by Fig. 148, the solid matter settles to the bottom of 
the pool and the grease and light matter floats on top of the 
sewage, while the liquid in the center, comparatively free from 
grease or solids, is drawn off through the outlet as indicated. 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 379 



Water Bag for Stopping Gas Pipe. * — At a recent meeting 
in Cincinnati of the Ohio Gas Light Association a scheme for 
stopping up a pipe by means of a bag was forwarded by H. B. 
Benner, Guelph, Ontario. The idea is represented by Fig. 149. 
The bag is made of cloth such as is usually used for bed sheeting, 
cut as follows: The cloth is given a circumference about 1J in. 
larger than the circumference of the pipe, sewed inside and 
outside and dipped in linseed oil to make it hold water. The bag 
is placed over the hook shown in detail at A and put into the 
pipe by means of this hook. The hook is then removed and a 
f-in. pipe fastened to the mouth of the bag. Water is poured 
into the bag and filling the bag stops the flow of gas. 

The pipe is supported by the stake. To remove the bag the 
hand is placed at the mouth of the bag and pulled gradually out 
of the pipe. On pulling slowly, 
which act will force the bag to the 
top surface of the pipe, the water 
is caused to rush out in a few sec- 
onds. From 2 to 3 lbs. pressure can 
be created in the bag, depending on 
the height of the water column, 
and but 15 seconds are necessary to 
insert the bag and cut off the flow 
of gas. This, of course, is a detail 
of particular interest to operation 
men of gas supply companies. It 
is stated that a 10-in. bag will 
suffice for a 10 to 8-in. pipe, a 6-in. 
bag for 6 and 4-in. pipes, and a 4-in. 
pipes. 

Supporting Heavy Pipe on Long Spans. — To support a 
run of pipe over a span where it is not desired to use a bridge 
truss, use a hog chain as shown by Fig. 150. This has very often 
been used in street work with good success. 

Equation of Pipes by the Steel Square. — To find the 
diameter of a pipe to carry the capacity of two smaller ones: — 
Take the diameter of the two smaller pipes on the tongue and 
blade of the square and measure the diagonal from these two 
points, which will give the diameter of the large pipe of equal 
capacity of the two smaller ones. Example. To find the size 
* " The Metal Worker." 




Fig. 149. Water Bag for 
stopping Gas Pipe. 

baa: for 4, 3 and 2-in. 



380 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



pipe to carry the capacity of a 3-inch and a 4-inch pipe: — Take 

4 inches on the blade of the square and 3 inches on the tongue. 

Measure the diagonal, which is found to be 5 inches and which is 

the diameter of the pipe required. 

The same rule can be used by drawing lines as follows: 
Suppose it is desired to find the size of pipe necessary to carry 

the contents of a 1^-inch, a 2-inch and a 2^-inch pipe. 

Draw two lines at right angles to each other, as 1-2 and 2-3, 




Fig. 150. Pipe supported on Hog Chain. 



Fig. 151, the one line being 1 \ inches in length and the other line 

2 inches long; these lines represent the diameters of the two 

smaller pipes. 

Now draw the diagonal 1-3, which gives the diameter of a pipe 

equal in capacity to the two smaller ones ; now draw 3-4 at right 
angles to 1-3 and 2\ inches in length to 
represent the 2J-inch pipe; now draw the 
diagonal 1^, which gives the desired dia- 
meter of a pipe equal in 
capacity to the three 
smaller ones. 

This method can be 
continued to find the 
combined capacity of 
any number of pipes. 

Syphon on Steam 
Gauges. — A syphon 
of some kind must be 
used on every steam 
gauge to prevent any- 
thing but water enter- 





Fig. 152. Steam 
Gauge Syphon. 



Fig. 151. Equation of Pipes 

ing the gauge spring 
Fig. 152 shows the syphon generally used. 

Closet Connection to Soil Pipe. — The old common method 
of connecting a water closet to the soil pipe was to turn the lead 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 381 

connection back over the floor and set the closet in a bed of putty. 
This made a very poor joint; while it might not show a leak, still 
a joint of this kind was seldom gas-tight. The next improve- 
ment was the rubber gasket, which was much better than putty 



Fig. 153. Closet Floor Plate. 

but not satisfactory on account of the rubber soon decaying, or 
becoming hard and brittle. Both these methods have been done 
away with in some of the larger cities, their plumbing laws pro- 
hibiting the use of putty, plaster, cement, rubber or leather 




Fig. 154. Ordinary Floor Plate and Gasket in place. 

gaskets. Floor plates such as shown by Fig. 153 are usually used, 
the lead connection being soldered to the beveled edge of the plate, 
and specially prepared gasket of asbestos used to make the joint 
to the fixture. Fig. 154 shows the ordinary plate and gasket in 
place. Fig. 155 is an improved connection called the " Renton," 
and Fig. 156 is another improved connection. The gaskets of 
all the improved connections are of asbestos or other non- 
perishable material. 



382 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Brazing.* — When two pieces of iron or steel are welded 
together, they are joined by making the pieces so hot that the 
particles of one piece will stick to those of the other, no medium 
being used to join them. In brazing, however, the brass acts in 
joining two pieces of metal together in somewhat the same 
manner that glue does in joining two pieces of wood. Briefly 



| — u 

'V 





Fig. 155. " Renton " Closet Connection. 



the process is as follows: The surfaces to be joined are cleaned, 
held together by a suitable clamp, heated to the temperature of 
melting brass, flux added, and the brass melted into the joint. 
The brass used is generally in the shape of "spelter, " though 
brass wire or strips of rolled brass are sometimes used in place of 
spelter, brass wire in particular being very convenient in many 




Lead Pipe 

Fig. 156. Improved Closet Connection. 



places. A simple example of a brazed joint is shown in Fig. 157, 
where a flange is brazed to the end of a small pipe. It is not 
necessary in this case to use any clamps, as the pieces will hold 
themselves together. The joint between the two should be made 
roughly. If a tight joint be used there will be no chance for the 
brass to run in. The joint should fit in spots but not all around. 
* "Technical World." 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 383 

Before putting the two pieces together, the surfaces to be joined 
should be cleaned free from loose dirt and scale. When ready 
for brazing the joint is smeared with a flux (one part salammoniac, 
six or eight parts borax) which may be added dry or put on in the 
form of a paste mixed with water. The joint is then heated and 
the spelter mixed with flux sprinkled on and melted into place. 
Brass wire could be used in place of the spelter in the manner 
indicated, the wire being bent into a ring and laid round the joint 
as shown. Ordinary borax may be used as a flux, although not 




Fig. 157. Methods of brazing. 

as good as the mixture used above. The heat should be gradually 
raised until the brass melts and runs all around and into the 
joint, when the piece should be lifted from the fire and thoroughly 
cleaned, by scraping off the melted borax and scale. It is 
necessary to remove the borax, as it leaves a hard, glassy scale 
which is particularly disagreeable if any filing or finishing has to 
be done to the joint. This scale may be loosened by plunging 





Fig. 158. Wrong Way to set 
Globe Vi 



Fig. 159. Correct Way to set 
Globe Valves. 



the work, while still red-hot, into cold water. Almost any metal 
which will stand the heat may be brazed. 

Position of Globe Valves. — Globe valves, when possible, 
should be set on their side. 



384 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Fig. 158 shows a section of a globe valve set upright, which 
shows in case of drainage that the valve will only drain the pipe 
to the line A, or just about half empty the pipe. It also forms 
a dam half the height of the pipe to catch sediment. 

Fig. 159 shows the same valve set on its side, and as will be 
seen, will drain down to the line B or will empty the pipe. 

The Abuse of Valves.* — The following are a number of 
reasons why valves leak after being placed in a pipe line : — 

1. We are confident that ninety per cent of all the trouble with 
leaky valves arises from the improper use of cement, and from 
the failure to remove the particles of cement, scale, chips, dirt, 
etc., that naturally get into the pipe while it is lying around a 
building and then lodge on the valve seat after steam is turned on. 

When applying cement, it should be put on the male part only, 
for if placed on the female part, it goes through the pipe and gets 
on the valve seat. In any case much more cement is used than is 
really necessary. 

If steam fitters would take pains to apply the cement as above 
directed, and also make sure the pipe is clean by standing it on 
end and striking it a few times with a hammer before putting it 
into place, in order to loosen any scale or dirt that may be inside, 
an immense amount of trouble would be avoided. 

As a further precaution, it is well, when a job is started up, to 
open all the valves throughout the building and blow the steam 
through them thoroughly. After doing this properly there will 
be very little material in the pipes to cause trouble. After the 
job has been run a short time, it would be well, as an additional 
precaution, to clean out all the valves thoroughly. 

2. It occasionally happens that threads on pipe are cut longer 
or smaller than standard, in which case, if the pipe is screwed into 
the valve, it very likely will run up against the partition and 
injure it. 

3. In the lighter class of valves, one of the common abuses is 
the application of a pipe wrench on the opposite end of the valve 
from the end which is being screwed on the pipe. This should 
never be done, as it invariably springs the valve and of course 
causes it to leak. 

4. If a light valve is put into a vise for the purpose of removing 
the centerpiece, the valve should certainly be clamped lengthwise. 

In all cases when removing centerpiece, care should be taken to 
* Set of rules given out by Crane Co. 



VARIOUS METHODS, HINTS AND SHORT CUTS 385 

have the disc some distance from the seat, as otherwise the disc 
will be forced onto the seat and some part of the valve become 
strained. 

Never use an old, strained monkey wrench on a centerpiece, 
as such wrench is quite likely to squeeze the corners of centerpiece 
out of shape. 

If found impossible to remove the bonnet or centerpiece by 
ordinary methods, heat the body of the valve just outside the 
thread with a blowtorch, or any other available means that can 
be applied to the body and not to the centerpiece. Then tap 
lightly all around the thread with a soft hammer. This method 
never fails, as the heat expands the body and breaks the joint 
made by the litharge or cement. 

5. Often when a stuffing-box leaks, a steam fitter will endeavor 
to stop the leak by straining the stuffing-box with a large wrench, 
when the difficulty is due to the packing having become worn out 
and needing to be renewed. 

6. It sometimes happens that when a valve is to be used on a 
header, the steam fitter will start out with a long piece of pipe 
that is unsupported, and, through carelessness, will allow the 
strain of the pipe to come on the valve, thereby springing it. 

7. Serious trouble is also likely to occur in a pipe line where 
light valves are used through the fitter not making proper allow- 
ance for expansion and contraction and allowing the strain to 
be thrown on the valves. The pipe and fittings are much more 
rigid and stiff than the lighter brass valves, and in consequence 
the expansion strains will relieve themselves at the weakest 
point, unless otherwise provided for. A very good example of 
this is illustrated in most high buildings heated by steam, where 
it is difficult to take care of the expansion. The steam fitter 
will branch out of his riser with a feed pipe to radiator. The 
radiator will have high legs, and the air valve end usually stands 
close to the riser. He runs this branch (from three to six feet 
in length) underneath the radiator to the front end, and usually 
connects same to the radiator valve by a short nipple. This 
cross piece or branch under the radiator is supposed to take up 
the expansion and contraction of the riser, which may expand 
from one-half inch to one and one-half inches. He does not 
appreciate the fact that the ordinary light angle radiator valve 
is the most flexible of all the connections and will spring or distort 
itself before anything else in the branch. He makes his radiator 



386 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



valve serve as a swing joint and universal connection, yet 
wonders why the valve leaks. 

In such a building it is very difficult to provide sufficiently for 
this expansion, and probably the safest way to insure good work 
is to use, in such parts of the job, a valve of very much heavier 
construction, so that there will be no danger of its springing. 

8. Very often, when a valve leaks, some one will stupidly 
undertake to tighten it by using some kind of a lever on the 



S 



/ 



s 



Fig. 160. Carrying Smoke to two Outlets. 

wheel. This should never be done, as it will in all probability 
injure the valve. As the trouble undoubtedly is due to the 
presence of dirt in the valve, it is very much better in such cases 
to take the valve apart and clean the seat. 

Carrying Smoke through Two Flues. — It sometimes hap- 
pens that when a heating system is put into an old house there 




Fig. 161. Connecting Lead to Iron Pipe. 



will not be a flue available for use that has sufficient area for the 
heater or boiler, but there may be two small flues that can be used. 
When such is the case run the smoke pipe of the heater or boiler 
up to a tee as shown by Fig. 160. Then run the two branches 
from the tee as shown. Put a partition in the tee as shown 
extending down about a foot below the lower side of the branch 




Fig. 162. 



(387) 



388 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

pipes. This partition will form two passages for the ascending 
smoke and will divide the smoke so that each flue will then draw 
off its equal share of the smoke, and the draught of one flue will 
not interfere with the draught of the other one. 

To Connect a Lead and Iron Pipe. — Fig. 161 shows how a 
lead pipe can be connected to an iron pipe by using a union; the 
lead pipe is inserted in the union and swedged over as shown, 
then the union is screwed together, compressing the lead flange 
and making a tight joint. 

Labor-saving Tools. — Fig. 162 shows a number of labor- 
saving tools, which every plumber should keep on hand ; on one 
job of plumbing they will often save their cost, in the amount of 
time and labor saved. 

1 is an expanding plier, and is used in place of the turning pin 
for swedging out lead pipe or openings for making a wipe joint. 
2 is a washer cutter to be used in the brace, and will cut washers 
of any desired size. 3 and 4 are wrenches for turning brass or 
nickle-plated pipe without scratching or disfiguring the pipe. It 
is a good idea to wrap a piece of paper around the pipe before 
applying the wrench. 5 is a basin plug wrench for holding the 
basin plug while the connection is screwed up below. Holding 
the plug in this manner prevents it from becoming loose from the 
basin when turning up the lower connection. 6 is a flexible auger 
used for cleaning out stoppages in pipe, etc. 7 is also an auger 
made especially for cleaning out closets as shown. 8 is an air 
compressor, made of rubber and wood; it is provided with a long 
handle and used for cleaning out water closets, traps and soil 
pipe, scrubbing water closets and wash bowls, forcing stoppage 
out of waste pipes, wash bowls, urinals, etc. 9 is a crimper for 
crimping the ends of stove and hot air pipe. 10 is the double or 
pipe shears for cutting round stove or hot air pipes. 

Running Lead Joints. — When running hub and spigot 
joints with lead do not resort to the old fashioned method of 
using clay as a dam; asbestos joint runners are now made and 
will save their cost in a very short time in labor saved; one of 
these clamps can be clamped around the pipe and the joint run 
in less time than it would take to put the clay in place by the 
old method. 

Setting Pumps. — When setting a pump locate it as near the 
water supply as possible ; the atmospheric pressure is what forces 
the water into the pump, consequently the lower the pump and 



PLUMBING RULES 389 

shorter the lift, the faster and with greater efficiency will the 
water be delivered to the pump. 

Where Rust Joints Should be Used. — Rust joints should 
be used on cast-iron pipes through which very hot water or steam 
is to be carried, but should not be used on any closed part of a 
house drainage system; see page 467 for method of making a 
rust joint. 

Use of Stillson and Monkey Wrenches. — Use a Stillson 
wrench only where it is intended to be used, and a monkey 
wrench ditto. Nothing spoils the looks of a job of piping more 
than to see union or other flat sided connections disfigured by 
using a Stillson wrench on them. 



PLUMBING RULES. 



The following rules regarding plumbing are taken from the 
Philadelphia Building Code: 

Rule 10. The main drain of every house or Main drain to 

building shall be separately and independently with street 

connected with the street sewer, where one is sewer - 

provided; and where there is no sewer in the seW er is^ec- 6 

street, and it is necessary to construct a private essary, plans 
. , . . must be ap- 

sewer to connect with one on an adjacent street, proved by 

such plans may be used as may be approved by Health.° 

the Board of Health; but in no case shall a joint joint drain 

drain be laid in cellars parallel with street or not to be laid 

r in cellars, 

alley. 

All house-drains laid beneath the ground inside Material to be 

of buildings or beneath the cellar floor shall be derground 1 " 

of plain, extra-heavy cast-iron pipe, with well house-drains. 

leaded and calked joints, or of wrought iron, with 

screw joints made with a paste of red lead and 

treated to prevent corrosion. 

All other drains or soil-pipes connected with Material to be 
,, • j • t_ ,i j • used in other 

the main dram, or where the mam dram pipe is drain- or soil- 
above the cellar floor, shall be of plain cast-iron P J P es « 
pipe, or of wrought-iron pipe with screw joints 
made with a paste of red lead and treated to pre- 
vent corrosion. 



390 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Outside of the buildings, where the soil is of Terra-cotta 
sufficient solidity for a proper foundation cylindri- may be used 
cal terra-cotta pipes of the best quality, free buildhaglfun- 

from flaws, splits, or cracks, perfectly burned, and der certain 
' , . . , conditions, 

well glazed over the entire inner and outer sur- 
faces may be used, laid on a smooth bottom, 
with a special groove cut in the bottom of trench 
for each hub (in order to give the pipe a solid 
bearing on its entire length) and the soil well 
rammed on each side of the pipe. The spigot 
and hub ends shall be concentric. 

The space between the hub and pipe shall be Space be- 
thoroughly filled with the best cement mortar, tw ^ en . nub 

. . n . and P'Pe to be 

made of equal parts of the best American natural filled with ce- 

cement and bar sand thoroughly mixed dry, and 

water enough afterward added to give it proper 

consistency. The cement must be mixed in small 

quantities at a time and used as soon as made. 

The joints must be carefully wiped and pointed, Joints to be 

and all mortar that may be left inside thoroughly fi n ?|^ r i y 

cleaned out and the pipe left clean and smooth 

throughout, for which purpose a swab shall be 

used. 

No tempered-up cement shall be used. A n ua ii tv f 

straight-edge shall be used, and the different cement. 

sections shall be laid in perfect line on the bottom 

and sides; but in no case shall terra-cotta pipes p^esnotto 

be permitted within five (5) feet of any founda- be within 5 
j. ,, , , , .,, ; . feet off oun- 

tion-wall, or for extension to connect with ram- dation-wall, 

water conductors, surface or air inlets. Extensions! 1 " 

Note. — After the test has been approved by Coating of 
the inspector, iron drain- or soil-pipes may be ? lpe , s not to n 
tar-coated. But in no case shall any coating be after appro- 
applied to cast-iron soil- or drain-pipes until test Jp e ctor. m " 
has been applied and approved by the inspector. 

Rule 11. The house-drain shall be not less Construction 
than four (4) inches, nor more than ten (10) drains. Se " 
inches in diameter, and the fall shall not be less 
than one-half (J) an inch to the foot, unless by 
special permission of the Board of Health; it 
shall be laid in a trench cut at a uniform grade, 
or it may be constructed along the foundation- 



PLUMBING RULES 391 

walls above the cellar floor, resting on nine (9) 
inch brick piers laid in cement mortar (said piers 
to be not more than seven (7) feet apart) and 
securely fastened to said walls; no tests shall be 
made by the inspector until said pipes are secured 
as above described. 

Rule. 12. The arrangement of soil- and waste- Arrangement 

a °^ nouse ~ 

pipes shall be as direct as possible. All changes drains. 

in direction on horizontal pipes shall be made with 
Y branches, one-sixteenth (^) or one-eighth ($) 
bends. 

Rule 13. The house-drain shall be provided with Location of 
a horizontal trap, placed immediately inside the ho^e-drain. 
cellar wall nearest to the sewer, or at the curb. 
The trap shall have a hand-hole, for convenience 
in cleaning, the cover of which shall be properly 
fitted and the joints made air-tight. 

Note. — If the trap and the main drain is placed Main trap to 
inside of the cellar wall, there shall be no clear- hole 6 * 1 
out between the water seal of the trap and the 
sewer. 

Rule 14. There shall be an inlet for fresh air Location of 
entering the drain just inside the water seal of i^s^ndrakis. 
the main trap, and also at the rear of the system, 
when the vertical line of soil-pipe is located in 
the central part of the building and the main 
fresh-air inlet is deemed insufficient to ventilate 
the entire system. Said inlets shall be at least 
four (4) inches in diameter, leading to the outer 
air and opening at any convenient place, with an 
accessible clean-out. Where air inlets are located 
off the footway, on grass plots, lawns, etc., they 
shall extend not less than six (6) nor more than 
fifteen (15) inches above the surface of the ground 
and be protected by a cowl securely fastened with 
bolts. 

Rule 15. Where the drain passes through a ^ e ^ ired 
new foundation-wall a relieving arch shall be when drain- 
built over it with a two (2) inch clearance on througha^ 

*»if rtPr drip new fcmnda- 

eitner side. tion-wall. 

Rule 16. Every vertical soil-pipe shall extend 
at least two (2) feet above the highest part of the 



392 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

building or contiguous property, and shall be of Construction 
undiminished size, with the outlet uncovered soil- or waste- 
except with a wire guard. Such soil-pipe shall p^ 8 - 
not open near a window nor an air-shaft ventilating 
living-rooms. 

Rule 17. Every branch or horizontal line of Branch or 

soil-pipe to which a group of two (2) or more horizontal 

r i > of v soil-pipes to 
water-closets is to be connected, and every branch which water- 
line of horizontal soil-pipe eight (8) feet or more connected to 

in length, to which a water-closet is to be con- be ventilated ; 

° ' manner or 

nected, shall be ventilated, either by extending such ventila- 

said soil-pipe, undiminished in size, to at least 
two (2) feet above the highest part of the building 
or contiguous property, or by extending said soil- 
pipe and connecting it with the main soil-pipe 
above the highest fixture, or by a ventilating pipe 
connected to the crown of each water-closet trap, 
not less than two (2) inches in diameter, which 
shall be increased one-half (J) an inch in diameter 
for every fifteen (15) feet in length, and connected 
to a special air-pipe, which shall not be less than 
four (4) inches in diameter, or by connecting said 
ventilating pipe with the main soil-pipe above the 
highest fixture. 

Rule 18. Where a separate line of waste-pipes is Construction 

used, not connectedjwith sewer-pipes, it shall also be °? was te- 

• i-i pipes not con- 

carried two (2) leet above the highest part of the nected with 

building or contiguous property, unless otherwise per- s ^ wer_ P 1 p es - 

mitted by the Board of Health. But in no case shall not to con- 

a waste-pipe connect with a rain-water conductor. rain-water 

Rule 19. There shall be no traps, caps, or cowls conductor. 

on soil- and waste-pipes which will interfere with tion°to venti- 

the system of ventilation. lationtobe 

J , ... placed on soil 

Rule 20. All soil-, waste-, anti-siphon pipes or waste- 

and traps inside of new buildings, and of the ^esT'of not 

new work in old buildings, and also of the entire less than 3 

system when alterations are made in old buildings, sureper^ 6 

and the owner or agent of said building or buildings D eTpplied\o 

shall have contracted to have the entire drainage drain-pipes 

system tested, shall have openings stopped and 

a test of not less than three (3) pounds atmospheric 

pressure to the square inch applied. 



PLUMBING RULES 



393 



Rule 21. The drain-, soil-, and waste-pipes, 
and the traps, shall, if practicable, be exposed to 
view for ready inspection at all times, and for 
convenience in repairing. When placed within 
walls or partitions and not exposed to view, or not 
covered with woodwork fastened with screws so as 
to be readily removed, or when not easily acces- 
sible, extra-heavy pipes shall be used at the discre- 
tion of the Board of Health. 

Rule 22. No drainage work shall be covered 
or concealed in any way until after it has been 
examined and approved by a house-drainage 
inspector, and notice must be sent to the Board 
of Health, in writing, when the work is sufficiently 
advanced for such inspection; and immediately 
on the completion of the work application must 
be made for final inspection. The failure on the 
part of a master plumber to make said application 
for final inspection, or the violation of any of the 
rules of the Board of Health in the construction of 
any drainage work, and failure to correct the fault 
after notification, will be deemed sufficient cause 
to place his name on the delinquent list until he 
has complied with said rules and regulations. Any 
attempt on the part of a master plumber to con- 
struct or alter a system of drainage during the 
time his name appears on said delinquent list will 
subject him to criminal prosecution. 

Rule 23. All drain and anti-siphon pipes of 
cast iron shall be sound, free from holes, and of a 
uniform thickness, and shall conform to the follow- 
ing relative weights: 



Drain-pipes 
and traps to 
be easily ac- 
cessible when 
practicable. 

When drain- 
pipes and 
traps are not 
easily acces- 
sible, heavy 
pipe to be 
used. 



Drainage 
work not to 
be covered or 
concealed un- 
til inspected. 

Notice to 
Board of 
Health. 

Final inspec- 
tion. 

Name of mas- 
ter plumber 
to be placed 
on delinquent 
list for viola- 
tion of rules 
of Board of 
Health. 



Criminal 
prosecution 
in case a de- 
linquent shall 
do any drain- 
age work. 

Quality and 
weight of 
drain- and 
soil-pipes. 



In. 



Standard. 
Lbs. 



3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

S 

10 

12 



2 pipe, 4 per foot. 



Extra Heavy. 
In. Lbs. 

2 pipe, 5J per foot. 

3 " 9| 

4 " 13" " 

5 " 17 

6 " 20 "■ 

7 " 27 " 

8 " 33* " 
10 " 45" 

12 " 54 



394 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Rule 24. All drain and anti-siphon cast-iron Name of man- 
pipes shall have the weight per foot and the name weight per 
of the manufacturer cast on the exterior surface, °°drain- and 
directly back of the hub of each section, in char- soil-pipes, 
acters not less than one-half (J) inch in length. 

Rule 25. Lead waste-pipes may be used for When lead 

horizontal lines that are two (2) inches or less in may be used, 
diameter, and shall have not less than the follow- 
ing prescribed weights: 

1 inch pipe, 2 lbs. oz. Weight of 
ji tt tt tt g , t lead pipes. 

ji « tt 3 tt g tt 

2 tt << 4 << o tt 

Rule 26. Lead bends or traps for water-closets Thickness of 
shall not be less than one-eighth (|) of an inch in or traps for 
thickness. water-closets. 

Rule 27. Waste-pipes from wash-basins, sinks, Diameter of 
and bath-tubs shall not be less than one and one- from\vash- 
quarter (1£) inches in diameter, and wash-tray bath"tubs kS ' 
waste-pipes not less than one and one-half (1|) and wash- 
inches in diameter. 

Rule 28. All joints in cast-iron drain-, soil-, and Joints in cast- 
waste-pipes shall be so calked with oakum and p i pe s to be 
lead, or with cement made of iron filings and calked - 
salammoniac, as to make them gas-tight. 

Rule 29. All connections of lead with iron pipe Connections 

shall be made with a brass ferrule not less than iron pipe to 

one-eighth (|) of an inch in thickness, put in the £ e b ^ e f ™ th 

hub of the iron pipe and calked in with lead, rule; how 

. , . connection to 

except in cases of iron water-closet traps or old be made. 

work, when drilling and tapping is permitted. The 

lead pipe shall be attached to the ferrule by a 

wiped solder joint. 

Rule 30. All connections of lead pipe shall be Connections 
. . of lead pipe 
by wiped solder joints. to be by sol- 
Rule 31. Every water-closet, sink, basin, wash- ^ r Jolnts - 
tray, bath, and every tub or set of tubs, shall be e ts, sinks, 
separately and effectually trapped. separately 

Rule 32. The trap must be placed as near the trapped. 

fixture as practicable. All waste-pipes shall be J;° P ^ lonof 

provided with strong metallic strainers. All g tramers . 



PLUMBING RULES 395 

drains from hydrants shall be trapped and in a Drains from 

•u i rtr hydrants, 

manner accessible for cleaning out. 

Rule 33. Traps of fixtures shall be protected protected* 
from siphonage. All anti-siphon pipes shall be from siphon- 
carried up and through the roof or connected 
with the main soil-pipes above the highest 
fixture. 

Rule 34. Every anti-siphon pipe shall be of Construction 
lead, of galvanized gas-pipe, or of plain cast-iron p^o^p'Sk 
pipe. Where these pipes go through the roof Materialtobe 
they shall extend two (2) feet above the highest used in anti- 
part of the building or contiguous property; they sl P hon P x P es 
may be combined by branching together those £ f g am g Ction 
which serve several traps. These pipes where not 
vertical must always be a continuous slope, to 
avoid collecting water by condensation. 

Rule 35. All drip- or overflow-pipes from safes Construction 
under wash-basins, baths, urinals, water-closets, or overflow- 1 
other fixtures shall be by a special pipe run to an pipes, 
open sink outside the house or some conspicuous 
point; and in no case shall any such pipe be con- 
nected with a soil-, drain-, or waste-pipe. 

Rule 36. No waste-pipe from a refrigerator or Waste-pipe 
other receptacle in which provisions are stored ato™ e?c™ not 

shall be connected with any drain-, soil-, or other to *? e ? on ." , 
. , nected with 

waste-pipe. Such waste-pipes shall be so arranged any drain- 
as to admit of frequent flushing, and shall be as pipe ' 
short as possible. 

Rule 37. The overflow-pipes from tanks and Discharge of 
the waste-pipes from refrigerators shall discharge tanks and^™ 

into an open fixture properly trapped. frigerator 

r i r j t-t- waste-pipes. 

Rule 38. All water-closets within buildings shall Water-closets 
be supplied with water from special tanks or cistern to .be ^P p J led 
which shall hold not less than eight (8) gallons of from flushing- 
water when up to the level of the overflow-pipe 
for each closet supplied, excepting automatic or SSJSSkSf 
siphon tanks, which shall hold not less than five (5) 
gallons of water for each closet supplied; the 
water in said tanks shall not be used for any other 
purpose. The flushing-pipe of all tanks shall not Size of flush- 
be less than one and one-quarter (1£) inches in 
diameter. 



396 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Rule 39. No closet, except those placed in the Water-closets 
yard, shall be supplied directly from the supply p2ed°dL-ectly" 
pipes. from main. 

Rule 40. A group of closets may be supplied Supplying 
from one tank, but water-closets on different floors cloStTfrom 
shall not be flushed from one tank. same tank. 

Rule 41. Water-closets, when placed in the Yard water- 
yard, shall be so arranged as to be conveniently adequlteiy 6 
and adequately flushed, and their water-supply flushed - 
pipes and traps shall be protected from freezing Protection of 
by placing them in a hopper-pit, at least three tos£me P from 
and one-half (3!) feet below the surface of the freezin e- 
ground, the walls of which shall be of brick or 
stone laid in cement mortar. The water-pipe from 
the hopper stopcock shall be conveyed to the 
drain through a three-eighths (§) inch pipe, prop- 
erly connected. 

Rule 42. The inclosure of the yard water- yardwIL?- 
closet shall be ventilated by slatted openings* ventiUted** 
and there shall be a trap-door in the floor of suffi- and have 
cient size for access to the hopper-pit. ffodr" 

Rule 43. Water-closets must not be located Water-closets 
in the sleeping-apartments of any building, nor cated°in sleep- 
in any room or apartment which has not direct mints iTr' 
communication with the external air either by a apartment 

• i ■ t_ rx l. ■ ■ ■ x it. without com- 

wmdow or an air-shait having an area to the munication 

open air of at least four (4) square feet. ^? th external 

Rule 44. The containers of all water-closets Containers of 
shall be supplied with fresh air and properly ^f^v^nti-^ 
ventilated, as approved by the Board of Health, lated. 

Rule 45. All water-closets within a building Lead con- 
using lead connections shall have a cast-brass ^ter-cloaets 
flange not less than three-sixteenths (^) of an wi *£jP a 
inch in thickness (fitted with a pure-rubber gasket 
of sufficient thickness to insure a tight joint) 
bolted to the closet. 

Rule 43. Where latrines are used for schools Construction 
they shall be of iron, properly supplied with water, schools, 
and located in the yard at least twenty (20) feet 
from the building when practicable. 

Rule 47. Rain-water conductors shall be con- Rain-water 

. , , conductors to 

nected with the house-dram or sewer and be be connected 



PLUMBING RULES 397 

provided with a trap the seal of which shall be not with house- 
less than five (5) inches. Said trap shall have a er and pro- 
hand-hole for convenience in cleaning, the cover ^ap^ trap to 
of which shall be made air-tight. have hand- 
Rain conductors shall not be connected outside Rain conduc- 
of the main trap, nor used as soil-, waste-, or vent- connected be 
pipes; nor shall any soil-, waste-, or air-pipe be outside of 
used as a rain conductor, and if placed within nor used as 
a building shall be of cast iron with leaded ^° rwaste ° 
joints. 

Rule 48. No steam exhaust or waste from Steam-ex- 
steam-pipes shall be connected with any house- not to be con- 
drain or soil-pipe. S^ 
Rule 49. No privy vault or cesspool for sewage Privy-vault 
shall hereafter be constructed in any part of the no t t^be'con- 

city where a sewer is at all accessible. structed 

*L . where a sewer 

Rule 50. No connection from any cesspool or is accessible. 

privy-well shall be made with any sewer, nor shall Connection of 
r . . cesspool or 

any water-closet or house-drainage empty into a privy-well 

cesspool or privy-well. mad^wfth 

Rule 51. In rural districts waste-pipes from sewer. 

buildings may be connected with cesspools con-. or house ° Se 

structed for that special purpose, properly flagged drainage not 

or arched over, and not water-tight, by special cesspool or 

permission of the Board of Health. privy-well. 

Rule 52. Privy-vaults must be constructed as Waste-pipes 

, ,, T-i i i m t •, i may be con- 

folloWS : Each building situate on an unsewered nected with 

street must have a privy-vault not less than four rural dis^ '** 

(4) feet in diameter and ten (10) feet deep in the 'tricts. 

clear, lined with hard brick nine (9) inches in Construction 

thickness, laid in cement mortar, and proved to be vam r t^ y " 

water-tight. 

Rule 53. Privy-vaults shall not be located Privy-vaults 

... not to be lo- 

withm two (2) feet of party lines, or withm twenty cated within 

(20) feet of a building when practicable; and nltfofmieet 

before any privy-vault shall be constructed, appli- of a building. 

cation shall be made and a permit for same issued construction 

by the Board of Health. of privy-vault 

J . required. 

Rule 54. No opening will be permitted in the No opening 

drain-pipe of any building for the purpose of drain- t(?be f^°^ a - n ^ 

ing a cellar, unless by special permission by the ing cellar un- 

Board of Health. mission. 



398 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Rule 55. Cellar-drains shall be constructed as follows: By 
a system of French drains, or field tile, to a catch- Construction 
basin, flagged over ; the outlet pipe shall be prop- of cellar 
erly trapped and connected with the house-drain, drains. 
and shall also be provided with a back -pressure valve or stop- 
cock the required size. 

Terms Used. 

The term " private sewer " is applied to main sewers that are 
not constructed by and under the supervision of the Department 
of Public Works. 

The term " house-sewer " is applied to that part of the main 
drain or sewer extending from a point five feet outside of the 
outer wall of a building, vault or area to its connection with 
public sewer, private sewer or cesspool. 

The term " house drain " is applied to that part of the main 
horizontal drain and its branches inside the walls of the build- 
ing, vault or area, and extending to and connecting with the 
house sewer. 

The term " soil-pipe " is applied to any vertical line of pipe 
extending through the roof, receiving - the discharge of one or 
more water-closets, with or without other fixtures. 

The term "waste-pipe" is applied to any pipe extending through 
roof, receiving the discharge from any fixtures except water- 
closets. 

The term "vent-pipe" is applied to any special pipe provided to 
ventilate the system of piping, and to prevent trap siphonage and 
back pressure. 



PAET V. 

SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMB- 
ING. MODERN SPECIFICATIONS. MIS- 
CELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. MENSURA- 
TION AND MENSURATION TABLES. 
ODDS AND ENDS FOR THE NOON HOUR. 
WAGE TABLES. 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING. 

Figs. 163-166 * show plumbing work done in the addition 
to the Raleigh Hotel, Washington, D. C. The specifications for 
this work were as follows: 

Sewer Connections. — Make connections with the street 
sewer for one house sewer, 8 inches in diameter. To be of extra 
heavy cast iron and to have a running trap of same caliber as the 
pipe, complete with "cleanouts" on either side of the seal fitted 
with brass screw cap ferrules caulked into trap. This trap, with 
proper fresh air inlet to house sewer, is to be of extra heavy cast 
iron and be located according to the plumbing regulations. 
Provide proper connection with the 8-inch house sewer for the 
blow-off and drip tank discharges. 

Drainage System. — The drainage system for the building 
will be connected with the house sewer directly and will be 
chiefly of cast iron extra heavy piping, or regulation sizes. 
Carry in from the house trap the 8-inch trunk line for house drain, 
to be hung from the ceiling of basement by suitable hangers 
secured to the floor beams. Place upon said line proper sized and 
located "cleanouts" with caps. All changes in direction of 
drain pipes are to be made by means of Y branches and one- 
eighth bends, and the entire horizontal runs are to be uniformly 
graded one-quarter of an inch per foot. 

Leader Drains. — Carry up from the respective branches 
on house drain the various ' lines of leaders ; each line where 

* The following figures showing examples of Modern Plumbing have been 
taken by permission from The Plumbers' Trade Journal, New York. 

399 



400 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




Fig. 163. Bath Rooms in the Raleigh Hotel, Washington, D, G, 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 401 

entering the said drain to have a running trap of full, caliber of 
leader provided with brass screw cap ferrules. There will be 
four (4) lines of leaders with branches as follows: No. 1 — 3 



Ilth Floor 



fc^J-^^SgPdja 




Fig. 164. Plumbing Work in the Raleigh Hotel, Washington, D. C. 

inches diameter, serving roof of dome and having 3-inch branches 
near the third and eleventh and main cornice levels. No. 2 — 3 
inches diameter, having similar run and branches. No. 3 — 5 
inches diameter, serving the north court and roof at about 4 feet 



402 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

above second floor level and having a 3-inch branch for north 
court. No. 4 — similar to No. 3, serving east court and roof. 
Provide for each leader connection, whether outside or inside, 
the necessary brass ferrules screwed into the pipe and made 
ready to receive the copper connections made by the sheet metal 
contractor; the leaders connecting with the roof directly to be 
carried to within 6 inches of the point of outlet. 

Soil and Waste Upright Lines. — Carry up from the house 
drain the various upright lines and branches for soil and waste 
pipes to serve all fixtures throughout the building. Each line 
to have the requisite number of branches to serve each group of 
fixtures, the said branches being made by means of Y's and 
eighth bends, as may be required. 

Vent Upright Lines. — Carry up the various lines of vent 
and back air pipes, of galvanized wrought iron, the same having 
the necessary T branches to serve each group of fixtures, and 
being connected at the foot into the nearest soil or waste line, so 
as to discharge rust or condensed water accumulations. Where 
these uprights serve fixtures upon six or more stories, the same 
must extend independently through the roof, otherwise it may 
be tapped into the soil or waste upright above the highest fixture 
upon that line. 

Pipes above the Roof. — Where the various pipes pass 
through the roof they are to be carried to a height of not less 
than four (4) feet above the main roof level, or as shown on plans. 

The plumber is to provide the ferrule attached to the pipe and 
the copper flanges and collars, all made ready for the roofing 
contractor. 

Pipes and Fittings. — All cast iron pipes and fittings to be 
of extra heavy patterns and of uniform thickness, sound, cylin- 
drical, and painted outside; all joints to be made with picked 
oakum and molten lead, well caulked. All the piping for waste, 
vent and leader line of 3-inch diameter and upward shall be of 
the best quality of wrought iron or steel, lap-welded tubing of 
standard weights. All vertical lines to be perfectly plumb and 
horizontal lines to be uniformly graded. 

Weights of Pipes. — Cast Iron: Wrought Iron: " Standard." 

4 in. dia., 13 lbs. per linear ft. lh in. dia., 2.68 lbs. per linear ft. 

5 in. dia., 17 lbs. per linear ft. 2 in. dia., 3.61 lbs. per linear ft. 

6 in. dia., 20 lbs. per linear ft. 
8 in. dia., 33^ lbs. per linear ft. 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 403 



Connections. — All connec- 
tions between cast and wrought 
iron pipe to be made by means 
of caulked and screwed fittings; 
between wrought and wrought 
iron, to be made by means of 
screwed joints with red and lin- 
seed oil; between wrought iron 
and lead pipes by means of 
screwed brass ferrules and sol- 
dering nipples with wiped lead 
joints, and between brass or 
brass and iron, by means of 
screwed connections. All con- 
nections must be standard in 
size, weight and finish, and all 
joints must be absolutely gas- 
and water-tight. The short lead 
bends for water closets' traps 
must be soldered firmly to the 
brass floor plates and the joints 
between trap and plate must be 
made with red lead and linseed 
oil. For wash basins, baths, and 
other fixtures having traps two 
inches or under in diameter, the 
connections are to be made by 
means of combination waste 
and vent connections, wherever 
possible. 

Tests. — Both drainage sys- 
tems are to be properly tested 
by a pressure test in the presence 
of the District Inspector of 
Plumbing, said pressure to be 
made by air or water, and the 
whole system to be proved per- 
fectly satisfactory before any 
fixture is connected to the same. 

Water Supply. — Will be 
connected with present pressure 




Fig. 165. Line of Nine Bath 
Rooms in the Raleigh Hotel. 



404 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

system. The water supply pipes throughout to be of best manu- 
facture of wrought iron or steel water tubing and of weights 
hereinafter scheduled. All fittings to be of extra heavy cast 
iron heavily threaded on to the piping, all joints being made by 
means of red lead and linseed oil, and all made perfectly water- 
tight. The branches from each main to be proper sizes to fully 
supply water to each and every fixture, the supplies to which 
are to be as follows: Water closet cisterns, ^-inch pipe; baths, 
f-inch pipe; wash basins, ^-inch pipe; urinal cisterns, ^-inch 
pipe. 

Valves. — All globe valves required for this work to be of 
brass with soft valve seats and to be of Fairbanks or Jenkins 
patterns (or equally good and approved by the engineer) and all 
are to have metal or wood handles as may be required. Gate 
valves may have iron bodies but otherwise to be of brass. 

Street Washer. — Provide and fit up where directed on front 
wall, a polished brass hose cock and nozzle, supplied through 
f-inch galvanized iron pipe from street pressure line in basement, 
having stop and waste cock just inside of wall. 

Pipe Sleeves and Trough. — Where water pipes pass 
through the first story, they are to have wrought iron sleeves or 
galvanized sheet iron chases of sizes to permit of easy withdrawal 
of pipes, without disturbance to the building. Likewise where 
water supply pipes cross over the first story rooms, provide for 
the same lead lined wooden troughs with covers and arranged 
to drain into the pipe sleeves. 

Finish for Exposed Pipes, etc. — The painting of pipes 
where exposed will be done by other parties, but the plumber is 
to cover such hot or cold water pipes, that may require protec- 
tion, with same kind of asbestos-magnesia sectional covering as 
will be used by the heating contractor (viz., Valleau Costigan). 
This covering to be complete with canvas, bands, etc. All pipes 
of every description, where passing through floors or walls, are to 
have sheet metal sleeves and neat ceiling or wall flanges of nickel- 
plated metal. All flush pipes from cisterns are to be seamless 
drawn brass tubing heavily nickel plated. All valves exposed 
in bath or toilet rooms to be heavily nickel plated, otherwise 
they are to be brass finished. 

Marble Work and Fittings. — Provide for all wash basins 
throughout countersunk and moulded slabs, 1| inches thick 
with moulded backs and ends 1 inch thick, 12 inches high. 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 405 




406 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Nickel-plated legs to be provided for slabs where required. All 
urinals to have sides and backs as shown, 5+ feet high and 1 inch 
thick and 1^-inch platforms countersunk and 1-inch capping. 
All the above to be of first quality light-veined Italian marble, 
highly polished. All the above to be carefully cut and polished 
and set in best manner, using silver-plated screws where required. 
Provide all clamps and standards for wash basins and all other 
metal fittings required for setting marble. 



Schedule of Fixtures: 



Story. 


Height. 


W. Clos. 


W. Bas. 


Baths. 


Urin. 


11 




2 
6 


3 

8 




2 


10 


ioi" 


*6 





9 


m 


6 


8 


6 





8 


iii 


6 


8 


6 





7 


Hi 


6 


8 


6 





6 


iii 


6 


8 


6 





5 


Hi 


6 


8 


6 





4 


Hi 


6 


8 


6 





3 


iii 


6 


8 


6 





2 


13i 


6 


8 


6 





1 


18 


9 


5 





1 


Bas. 


11 


— 


— 


— 


— 






65 


80 


54 


3 



Summary. — Water closets, 65; wash basins, 80; baths, 54; 
urinals, 3. 

Water Closets. — Provide the water closets throughout the 
building; be all porcelain of the "Siphon" shape, approved by 
engineer, having hardwood cisterns, seats and covers, nickel 
plated fittings and pipings. The plumber is to set the same 
complete with perfect connections to the waste and vent pipes. 
Water supply to cistern to be f-inch galvanized iron pipe, con- 
trolled by nickel-plated f-inch globe valves. 

Baths. — Provide the baths throughout the building; to be 
of porcelain lined with rolled rim, having legs to match tub and 
to be complete with nickel-plated high supply fixtures combined 
with Unique waste, and are to be approved by the engineer. 
The plumber is to set same complete with proper connections to 
the waste and vent pipes by means of 2-inch brass trap with trap 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 407 



screw vented beneath the floor. Supply with hot and cold water 
through | 




Fig. 167. 



Lavatories, Water Closet and Shower Bath in Bath Room of 
the Morgan Residence. 




Fig. 168. Fixtures in Bath Room of the Morgan Residence, Bath, Seat 
Bath and Bidet. 



Wash Basins. — Provide and set complete all the wash basins 
required and shown upon the plans; the same to be of ivory 
tinted vitreous ware with overflow and waste and of 15 X 19 
inches oval pattern; waste through H-inch nickel plated brass 



408 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




Fig. 169. Sectional View of a Bath Room in the Morgan Residence. 




Fig. 170. Group of Kitchen Fixtures in the Morgan Residence. 



trap with trap screw, and supply hot and cold water through 
4-inch galvanized iron pipes. The basin fixtures to be nickel 
plated with Unique waste and Mott's Low-down "Fuller" 
pattern basin cocks. Support the slabs by nickel-plated brass 
legs of neat design approved by engineer 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 409 

Urinals. — Provide and fit up where required and shown on 
eleventh story plans, three urinals of the Newport pattern in 
vitreous porcelain, with trap and inlet combined. Provide for 
same hardwood flushing cisterns with chain and pull complete. 
Waste through 2-inch combination waste and vent connection 
and supply cistern through §-inch galvanized iron pipe con- 
trolled by ^-inch nickel-plated globe valve. 

Note. — Provide air chambers for each fixture or group of 
same as may be required. 

Samples of Fixtures, etc. — The contractor is to submit 
samples of all fixtures and apparatus to the engineer for his 
approval, before order for same is placed. 

Gas Piping. — Provide and run the requisite line of gas risers 
to supply gas to the public halls, as required by the rules of the 
fire department. Said lines to be of proper sized pipe for ample 
supply to each outlet and arrange same in the basement for 
meter. Each riser to be controlled by a brass stop-cock and the 
entire system to be graded so as to drain back to the meter. All 
materials to be of the best quality and the system to be tested 
perfectly gas-tight. 

Figs. 167 to 170 show methods used in installing the plumbing 
in the residence of W. H. Morgan, Alliance, Ohio, and are very 
good examples of modern plumbing. 

Figs. 171 to 178 show the plumbing work as installed in the 
Burden Mansion, No. 7 East 91st St., New York. The work 
was done under the following specifications: 

This part of the work was to be installed and guaranteed by 
the contractor for one year from the date of final inspection. 
The accompanying plans and specifications will give the reader 
an idea of the work installed: 

Cast Iron Pipe. — 41. All underground pipes must be of 
extra heavy cast iron of the sizes, location and arrangement 
shown on plans. 42. After being placed in position and tested, 
all underground pipes to be painted by the plumbing contractor 
two coats of asphalt varnish or Prince's metallic paint, as may be 
directed. 

Wrought Iron Pipe. — 43. All soil, waste and vent pipes, 
and the house drain where above ground, must be of galvanized 
wrought iron pipe, of the sizes, location and arrangement shown 
on plans. Drainage fittings to be malleable. 44. The con- 
nection between wrought iron and cast iron pipe to be made by 



410 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



screwing on to the end of the wrought iron pipe a 1-inch ring to 
form a spigot which may be properly calked into the hub of 
the cast iron pipe or fitting. 45. All branch, waste and vent 
pipes not directly exposed at fixtures shall be galvanized wrought 
iron. 

Lead. — 46. The water closet bends, the traps for baths and 
their short waste and vent branches are to be of lead. Where 




Fig. 171. One of the Bath Rooms in the Burden Residence. 



lead is to be covered in contact with cement or other filling 
material it must be painted as specified for underground cast iron 
pipe and neatly wrapped in tarred paper wired on with copper 
wire. 47. Sheet lead must be six (6) pound lead. 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 411 

Brass. — 48. All exposed work on supply and waste pipe 
about fixtures to be polished brass of iron pipe standard, except 
where otherwise specified in detail. 

Plated Work. — 49. All exposed brass to be nickel plated, 
except where otherwise specified in detail; to be the best quality 
heavy plate on polished brass and warranted; "N. P." where 
used in this specification means "nickel-plated brass." Where 
screws, bolts, washers, etc., are required in connection with 
brass, marble or slate work, they must be N. P., and all bolts, 
fastenings, hinges, straps, etc., for seats and marble or slate work 
to be N. P. unless other material is specified. 

Cleanouts. — 53. Provide and set fittings for cleanouts at 
the end of all branches of drains and soil and waste pipe at 
points of change in direction, and on traps, etc., as shown on 
plans or as directed. All such cleanouts to be { ''Y" or "T" 
branches or trap hubs, same size as pipe and closed, gas-tight 
with special extra heavy cast brass plugs. All iron drain and 
leader traps, etc., must have hand-hole cleanouts. Make clean- 
outs accessible. 54. The brass caps of cleanouts must be made 
up with graphite in oil alone. 

Joints. — 55. Connections between lead and iron pipes must 
be made by heavy brass ferrules and soldering nipples with 
wiped and screwed, or calked, joints. 56. Joints of lead pipes, 
and all joints between lead pipes and brass fittings, to be wiped, 
soldered joints. 57. All wrought iron and brass joints to be 
screwed close up to the shoulder of fittings. In the case of N. P. 
and exposed pipes no threads to show beyond the shoulder of 
the fittings. 58. Joints between brass traps and brass pipes to 
be made screw joints. 59. All coupling joints on supply or 
flush pipes to be made with ground joint couplings. 60. Supply 
pipes to be put together with some ground joint brass unions, so 
that they may be easily taken apart for alterations or repairs. 
61. All basin and other earthenware fixtures requiring it must 
be ground to fit the slabs, and must be set in dry white lead and 
shellac. 62. The joint between earthenware fixtures having 
backs and the backs must be true, and the backs set in dry white 
lead and shellac. 63. Brass traps and slop sink traps must be 
connected into 90-degree "Y" drainage fittings, so as to form a 
continuous waste and vent connection. 

Brass Pipe. — 1. All pipes to be of annealed, seamless, drawn, 
tinned brass of iron pipe standard. 



412 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 413 

Exposed Fittings. — 2. To be hard, heavy beaded brass 
fittings, tinned and finished to correspond to the pipe. 

Other Fittings. — 3. Where the pipes are not exposed about 
fixtures all fitting's to be heavy beaded, malleable fittings, lined 



• Main Stack 




^ Back from A to B. 
% of Marble, to Floor 



* 



Double Lavatory 
in Vestiare 



Vent from 
Valet's Sink 

Back for Valet's 
Sink of Marble, to. 
Floor also Floor SlabB$t 



Marble Moor Slab 



Waste from Sink 




Fig. 173. Plumbing in Vestibule and Valet's Sink in Adjacent Closet of 
Burden Residence. 



with tin and galvanized on the outside, made by Lamb & Richie, 
Cambridgeport, Mass. 

Arrangement and Workmanship. — 4. Exposed work must 
be executed in a particularly neat and workmanlike manner. 
The pipe fittings, etc., must not be stained or marred by tool 
mark or otherwise. The threads must be so cut as not to show 
beyond the fittings, valves, etc. Suitable hangers to correspond 
to the work, and to be approved in advance, must be used. All 
ends of the pipe must be so cut that there shall be no burrs. All 
joints must be screwed joints of iron pipe standard. All pipes 
must be graded to drain at the lowest point, so that they may be 
completely and automatically emptied. 



414 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Valves and Cocks. — 5. All valves on supply lines to be 
finished brass gate, globe or angle valves with brass wheel handles, 




Marb*le Floor Slab 

Fig. 174. Pantry Sinks, and Connections First and Second Floors, 
Burden Residence. 

where exposed in rooms, and plated, polished or plain to corre- 
spond with pipe. No stop-cocks to be used. Gate valves to be 
Chapman Mfg. Co.'s and globe valves to be made by Jenkins 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 415 

Bros. & Co., and so marked. Valves larger than 1{ inch to be 
gate valves. 6. Cocks to be heaviest grade and finished or 
plated of patterns and materials specified. Compression cocks 
must have stuffing-boxes. All cocks and cistern connections, 
not specified, to have screwed-in connections, must have ground- 
in connection. 7. Place valves to control the main; the tank 
main; the pressure main; the filters; the pumps; the tanks; the 
hot water tank and boilers and heater; the risers and correspond- 
ing circulation pipes; the branches that are not taken from the 
risers; each fixture and cistern, and so as to provide the cross- 
connections and by-passes called for and otherwise as stated in 
detail. Provide |-inch drip valves near each valve on the base- 
ment ceiling. Provide a drip pipe emptying where directed. 

Mains. — 8. Remove the present taps and insert a 2-inch 
Smith tap. Extend to inside the building by 2-inch pipe. Con- 
tinue within the building by 2-inch pipe up to the suction tank. 
Provide from the 2-inch main a 1^-inch branch for the pressure 
service, taken just inside of the front wall. 

Pressure Service. — 9. Continue from the connection inside 
the front wall a 1^-inch pipe to the pressure service filter and to 
the kitchen boiler, and 1^-inch to the laundry boiler. 10. Form 
1^-inch hot and cold headers at the kitchen boiler. 11. Supply 
the fixtures below the second floor, except the laundry, from 
these headers. 12. Provide f-inch hot and cold risers to the 
third floor slop sink. 

Water Meter. — 13. Provide and set, hung in pipe hangers, 
a 2-inch " Crown" water meter near the front wall. 

Filters. — 14. Set in the pump room, where directed, two 
separate double cylinder filters complete, with tinned nickel 
plated brass pipe and fittings. The filters to be such as directed, 
and the cost of them is not to be included in the estimate for this 
contract. One filter to be on the pressure service main, the other 
on the down supply pipe from tanks. 

Suction Tanks. — 15. Provide near the pumps a galvanized 
wrought iron suction tank, 3 feet in diameter and 6 feet high, 
supported vertically from the floor on a double ring stand of 
wrought iron. Provide flanged connections as follows: 

One 2-inch for supply. 

One 1-inch in head for relief. 

One 1^-inch in side near bottom for boiler, etc. 

One 3-inch in side near bottom for pump suction. 



416 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



One 1^-inch in bottom for emptying pipe. Finish the exterior 
of the suction tank in dull black to correspond with the filters; 
all exposed piping, valves, etc., about the suction tank to be 
nickel plated. 

Suction Main. — 16. Provide from the suction tank to the 
pumps a 3-inch suction main. 17. Provide and set in the pump 




Fig. 175. Part of First Floor Plan in Burden Residence. 



room, where directed, two (2) No. 3-A Quimby electrical house 
pumps, or two (2) Marburg electrical house pumps complete, with 
3 horse-power motors, automatic motor starters and tinned cop- 
per ball tank floats, and electrical starting devices in each tank, 
including all necessary wiring. The latter to be in duplicate, 
each line of wiring connecting one tank to one pump. Set the 
starting apparatus so that one pump will have a lead of one foot 
in water level over the other. Provide a cross-connection of the 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 417 

wiring system, so that the pumps can lead alternately. Provide 
switches for starting and cutting out each pump independently 
in the pump room. Provide a Zindars & Hunt automatic motor 
starter, polished, set in the engine room where directed. Provide 
for each pump an Edward's rheostat if necessary to secure 
regulation of speed. 18. The pump motor, motor starter and 
accessories to meet the electrical requirements of the building. 19. 
Provide brass pans, 1^ inches deep and of necessary size, for the 
pumps, of ounce polished sheet brass, with edges wired over 
T Vinch brass rod. 20. Provide ^-inch brass drip pipes to the 
floor and continue to the floor drain by 1-inch galvanized wrought 
iron under the floor. Protect the outlets by a convex brass 
strainer. Provide between the pans and foundations a 1^-inch 
sheet of hair felt, neatly covered by 24-ounce canvas painted two 
coats. 21. The pumps and motors, motor starters and starting 
devices must be furnished and installed complete with all accesso- 
ries by one responsible person, who will be required to furnish a 
satisfactory guarantee for a term of five years. 



Main 
Main 



Stack f* I 
Vent — A 



Marble Back to Floors 




Fig. 176. Sectional View of the Kitchen Sinks in Basement of the Burden 
Residence. 



(a) That each pump will deliver not less than 2000 gallons 
per hour under the actual conditions at the building. 

, (b) Guarantee the pumps, agreeing to replace them in whole 
or in part in case of failure or deterioration other than by reason- 
able wear or accident from external sources. 



418 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

(c) Similarly guarantee the motors, motor starters, starting 
devices and accessories. » 

House Tanks. — 22. Provide and set in attic, where shown 
on plans, two (2) wrought iron house tanks, to have a capacity 
of 3000 gallons each below the water line. The tanks are to have 
a clear space on all sides of not less than 18 inches and are to be 
about 12 feet 6 inches long, 8 feet wide and 4 feet 6 inches deep. 
Support the tanks on steel beams, properly proportioned to distri- 
bute their weight, and carry it to the construction members 
suitable for the load. 23. The tank shell to be | inch thick, 
suitably riveted and water-tight, and thoroughly braced with 
edge reinforced by 2-inch x 3-inch angle iron. The tanks to be 
covered by 1-inch tight wrought iron covers, bolted to the tank 
rims with an air-tight joint. Provide two (2) scuttles, 30 inches 
square, with curbings of ^-inch iron and covers of 1-inch clear 
white pine, tinned. Provide in side covers of £-inch wrought 
iron properly stiffened, and provided with lifting rings resting 
on 1 J-inch angle iron frames, set true and level, so as to secure a 
dust-proof joint. Provide in the top of each tank a 12-inch 
circular flanged- opening, fitted with an air filter of wire mesh 
and wire gauze with a layer of cotton. Provide flanged connec- 
tions as required for the use of the tanks. 24. Provide safes of 
£-inch wrought iron 6 inches deep and 6 inches wider than the 
tanks on all sides. 25. Set the tanks in the safes on 6-inch iron 
beams. 26. Set the safes at such a height that the safe waste 
pipes may discharge into the roof gutters. 27. Provide 4-inch 
galvanized iron overflows to the roof near the gutter, dip trapped 
to within 6 inches of the bottom of the tanks and provided with 
small crown vent pipes to prevent siphonage. 28. Provide 
2-inch emptying pipes. 29. Provide 4-inch safe waste pipes into 
which the emptying pipes may be connected; extend to the roof 
near the gutter. 30. Provide brass flap valves on the overflows 
and safe waste pipes. 

Pump Pipe. — 31. Extend from the pumps a 3-inch pump pipe 
with full sized branches to each tank and each pump. Enter the 
tanks near the ends. 

Down Supply and Header. — 32. From two 3-inch cross 
connection between the tanks, provide a 2-inch down supply, 
continued to the tank pressure filter; at a point near the filter 
provide a header 3 inches in diameter of sufficient length for all 
necessary branches for which fittings are to be provided. 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 419 




Fig. 177. Plumbing in Bath Room and Office Toilet Room of the Burden 
Residence. 



420 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Hot Water Heater. — 33. Provide and set in the boiler 
room a No. 021 round "Richmond" hot water heater. The hot 
water pipes on top must not be bushed but be extended full size, 
1 foot, and be reduced with a long reducer. 34. Provide 2J-inch 
flow and return pipes for the boiler with flanged unions. 

Hot Water Boiler. — 35. Provide and set a double riveted 
galvanized wrought iron boiler of 300 gallons capacity, approxi- 
mately 3 feet in diameter and 6 feet 3 inches long over all, with 
dished heads (the body to be ^ inch and the heads f inch 
thick), hung from the floor beams or supported from the floor in 
a li-inch galvanized wrought iron pipe frame. The boiler to be 
tested under a hydraulic head of 2000 pounds per square inch, 
and so guaranteed by the maker, or actually tested on the 
premises; provide a flanged handhole for inspection. Make all 
necessary flanged connections as per detail diagram. 

Hot Water Header. — 36. Provide a 3-inch hot water 
header near the cold water header in the pump room, similar to 
the cold water header. 

Kitchen Boiler. — 37. Provide and set in the kitchen, over 
the hood of the range, an 80-gallon "Browns" 20-inch extra 
heavy copper boiler, as made by the Randolph-Clowes Company, 
with connections as per detail diagram, all to have female threads, 
hung in copper bands from the floor beams or otherwise supported 
in a manner to be previously approved. 38. Flow and return 
pipes 11 inch and 1^ inch of polished brass with polished brass 
unions, and full sized connections with the water back. 

Laundry Boiler. — 39. Provide and set in the laundry an 
80-gallon boiler, otherwise the same as kitchen boiler complete, 
as specified above. 40. Flow and return pipes 1J inches, other- 
wise as specified above. 

Air Chambers. — 49. Provide air chambers at all fixtures, 
18 inches long where possible, and where exposed they must be 
connected with continuous "T" and quarter bend in one piece 
and finished at the top with acorn caps. 

Other Branches. — 50. Provide three (3) 1-inch branches, 
where directed, for sill cock, with valves in side and large size 
wheel handles hose nozzle "Cooper" sill cocks outside. Arrange 
these to drain through valves. Provide a similar hose cock in the 
engine room taken from the fire main. 

Covered Supply Pipes and Branches. — 51. Horizontal 
supply pipes and branches are to be run in boxes of 20-ounce 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 421 

copper, pitched continuously to outlets, and provided with 1J- 
inch galvanized wrought iron safe waste pipes to the cellar ceiling 
where described in detail below. 52. These boxes must be 
suitably supported on plank bottom strips, and have water-tight 
soldered joints and wiped joints, where pipes pass through them, 
and brass pipe soldered nipples at the safe waste pipes and have 
covers soldered on. They must be 4 inches deep where possible, 
and of widths necessary to keep all pipes at least 4 inches apart 
and 1 inch from the sides, with the circulation pipe, where there 
is one, in the center. All pipes in these boxes must be secured in 
place by loose fitting copper straps soldered to the boxes. 53. 
Location of boxes: 1. At the branches for fixtures in both bath 



Back- 



of Red Honed Slate , 



3* Vent carried to next 

floor & entering Main VentE 




3dffl6ned»SJa.te^ 
Fig. 178. Porcelain Laundry Trays in Basement of the Burden Residence. 



rooms on the entresol. 2. At the branches for fixtures in 
both bath rooms on the third floor. 3. At the branches for 
fixtures in the two front bath rooms on the fourth floor. 

Material and Workmanship. — 56. Workmanship shall be 
under the same specifications as for water supply. 57. The 
pipes shall be of brass, as specified for water pipes. 58. Fittings 
shall be malleable galvanized drainage fittings, and if any sockets 
are required they shall be of malleable iron, similar to drainage 
fittings. 59. The valves and racks to be nickel plated and 
polished brass. 60. All hose, valves, racks and reels to be of the 
best grade manufactured by estate of John C. N. Guilbert. 61. 
In sub-basement provide two racks, one (1) in the boiler room, 
where shown, and one (1) at the foot of the servants' elevator. 
On the basement and first to fifth floors provide one (1) rack, 
where shown, at the servants' elevator. 62. The racks and reels 
to be swinging hose racks, as shown on page 16 of John C. N. 



422 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Cuilbert's catalogue, of the size to carry and supplied with 60 
feet of unlined linen hose of the best grade. 

Figs. 179 to 184 show the plumbing work in the W. B. Hibbs 
& Co. Office building, Washington, D. C. 




Fig. 179. Connections from the First to the Fifth Floor of the HibbS' 
Building. 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 423 




Fig. 180. Connections from the Sixth to the Tenth Floor of Hibbs' Building. 



424 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




Fig. 181. Toilet Fixtures from the First to the Fifth Floor in the Hibba' 

Building. 



SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 425 



JjFllg^To Lavatory 

.fv, 

few 




Fig. 182. Line of Fixtures in the Hibbs' Building. 



426 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 




SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN PLUMBING 427 




428 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Modern Plumbing Specifications. 

As an example of modern specifications the following, which 
were used on work done under the Supervising Architect of the 
Treasury Department, Washington, D. C, are given: 

General Description. — This section of the specification 
includes the installation complete of the plumbing, drainage 
water and gas supply systems and the marble finish of toilet 
rooms. 

The sanitary and drainage systems will be combined with two 
8-inch connections to 21 diameter combination sewer in Lincoln 
Avenue. 

Soil, waste and drain pipes below basement floor to be cast 
iron and all above to be galvanized wrought iron and all run as 
indicated and noted on drawings. 

Ventilation of sanitary system will be by end or circuit vents 
and individual trap vents will not be required. 

The drain pipe for boiler blow-off tank to be installed under 
another contract, is to be run separately and be connected to 
one of the main connections beyond building wall as shown. 

The drainage from roof will be by means of down spouts dis- 
charging into sanitary system as indicated on the drawings. 

The city water supply is a Holly System and the piping in the 
building will be arranged to utilize high pressure on the fire and 
street washer lines and low pressure through a reducing valve 
on the sanitary system. 

Kind and Quality of Material. — The required appliances, 
materials, fixtures, etc., furnished must in each case be in strict 
accordance with the specification and of the best quality and 
grade found in the market. 

Especial attention of bidders is called to the fact that they 
must fill out the proposal sheet and supply the information 
required thereby, as to name and address of manufacturers, 
catalogue number or trade name of the materials and appliances 
they propose to supply, and especial attention is called to the 
fact that where required by proposal sheet, the names of three 
different manufacturers of the material or appliances must be 
given. 

In the event that the successful bidder does not submit the 
name of manufacturer, etc., of material and fixtures, as required 
by the proposal sheet, or in the event material or appliances 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 429 

named by him are not in strict accordance with the specification 
requirements in regard thereto, or are not deemed to be of the 
best quality and grade found in the market, the Supervising 
Architect reserves the right to select the material, etc., which 
selection will be final and binding on the contractor, and the 
materials, etc., selected must be installed for the contract 
price. 

Especial attention of bidders is called to the fact that it is the 
intention of this office to install, as far as possible, a line of plumb- 
ing fixtures, not only in accordance with the specification but 
which are also the complete product of one manufacturer, and 
preference will be given in the consideration of proposals, other 
things being equal, to the proposal which proffers fixtures in 
accordance with the intention above expressed. By complete 
plumbing fixtures it is to be understood that not only fixture 
proper is meant but also all valves, traps, fittings, etc. 

Patents. — The department will not recognize demands 
brought on account of infringement of patents, but will hold the 
contractor and his bondsmen strictly responsible for any delay 
or any cost resulting from his failure to fully protect the govern- 
ment against patent rights. 

Approval of Material, etc. — The approval by the depart- 
ment of any appliance or material named on the proposal sheet 
is to be understood as an approval of same only upon its confor- 
mity with the specification requirements in regard thereto, and 
not as an absolute acceptance of the article without respect to 
the requirements of the specification. 

Samples. — The contractor must furnish for the approval of 
the Supervising Architect, all the samples hereinafter called for 
and must also, if required by the Supervising Architect, furnish 
samples of any or all of the material, fixtures, etc., he proposes 
to use. Contractor must pay all express charges on samples. 
Especial attention is called to the fact that no material or ap- 
pliances of which samples are required to be submitted for 
approval will be permitted to be placed in the building until 
such approval has been given by the Supervising Architect. 

The samples approved of may be used in the work after serving 
their purpose as samples. All samples must be accompanied by 
a letter of transmittal from the contractor and each sample must 
be marked with name of contractor and the name of the building 
in which it is proposed to be used. Rejected samples will be 



430 • MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

returned to the contractor by express at his expense unless he 
advises the office specifically to the contrary when submitting 
samples. 

In the event the contractor delays the submission of samples 
so that there does not appear to remain sufficient time for action 
on samples and for the execution of the work within the contract 
time, the department reserves the right to return submitted 
samples, without approval, at the expense of the contractor, and 
to abrogate the contract or have the work performed at the 
expense of the contractor. 

Tests and Inspections. — Upon entire completion of the 
plumbing, gas piping, and electric wiring and conduit system and 
upon completion of heating apparatus, except applications of 
non-conducting coverings, the contractor shall give written 
notice to the Supervising Architect through the Superintendent, 
of his readiness for inspection and test. 

Should the inspection or test not be begun, through no fault 
of the contractor within ten (10) days of the receipt of notice by 
the Supervising Architect, allowance will be made as herein- 
before provided. 

Should the inspection and tests be delayed upon the arrival 
of the inspector or require repetition for any reason for which the 
contractor is responsible, the cost of delayed or subsequent 
inspection arid test, including the salary, traveling and other 
expenses of the Department Agent, shall be at the expense of the 
contractor, and will be deducted from any money due the con- 
tractor upon the contract. 

All questions as to the satisfactory completion of the work, 
and defects necessary to be remedied, . are to be determined by 
the Supervising Architect or his authorized representative. 

In the event the contractor does not remedy any defects or 
make such changes as may be demanded by the Supervising 
Architect, to satisfactorily complete the contract, within a 
reasonable length of time, the right is reserved to have defects 
remedied or changes made and to charge the cost of same against 
the account of the contractor. 

Permits, etc. — The contractor must obtain all permits and 
pay all fees and charges and comply with the rules and regulations 
of the city, and the gas and water companies in regard to con- 
necting with sewers, gas and water mains, etc. 

He must comply with all the regulations in regard to street 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 431 

excavations and repairs. The local authorities and companies 
are to have jurisdiction over only such work as is outside of the 
lot line of the building. 

Guarantee. — Contractor must guarantee each and every 
part of the work specified under this section, and will be required 
to remedy at his expense all defects which may develop by reason 
of the use by the contractor of any inferior or defective materials 
or workmanship. It must be understood that the acceptance of 
the work will not relieve the contractor for having installed 
defective material and work not apparent at time of final inspec- 
tion. 

Soil, Waste and Drain Piping. — Runs of soil, waste and 
drain pipes must be of the sizes and run as indicated and noted 
on the drawings; connections to fixtures to be of the following 
sizes for each fixture: water closets, 4 inches diameter; slop 
sinks, 3 inches diameter; urinals, shower baths and galvanized 
iron sink and batteries of three lavatory basins, 2 inches diameter; 
batteries of two lavatory basins, l'£ inches diameter; single basin 
lavatories, 1^ inches diameter. No connection below basement 
floor to be less than 2 inches diameter. 

Soil, waste and drain pipes below basement floor must be run 
at grades noted on the drawings. Soil and waste pipes above 
basement floor are to be given a grade of \ inch per foot where 
possible. 

Vent Piping. — The soil and waste stacks indicated on draw- 
ings must be extended full size as a vent pipe 3 feet above the 
roof line. 

Where so indicated or noted on the drawings, two or more 
vent pipes are to be collected and extended above the roof as a 
single pipe. 

If an end of circuit vent pipe from a fixture or line of fixtures 
on an upper floor is to be connected to a vent pipe from fixture 
or fixtures located on a lower floor, the vent pipe from fixture or 
fixtures on upper floor must be run up about 4 feet above floor 
before connecting with vent pipe from fixture or fixtures on 
lower floor, so as to prevent any vent pipe acting as a waste pipe. 

Horizontal runs of vent pipes must where possible be given 
an up grade toward the main vertical Vent line. 

Vent pipes extending above the roof are to be direct extensions 
of soil or waste pipes wherever practicable unless otherwise shown 
on the drawings. 



432 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Openings through the roof for vent pipes must be flashed with 
8 pound sheet lead or drawn lead pipe of equal weight ; the flash- 
ing to be flanged and soldered water-tight at roof and the lead to 
extend around the vent pipes for a distance of 10 inches above 
the roof line. At top line of the lead flashing a drilled and 
threaded standard cast iron cap one size larger than vent pipe is 
to be screwed to each vent pipe to form counterflashing or rain 
guard. 

Down Spouts. — Down spouts are to be connected to roof 
gutters as hereinafter specified. 

Water Supply System. — The water main in Riverside Avenue 
is to be tapped at point where directed by the superintendent, 
and approved by the water company, and a 2^-inch diameter 
water supply pipe brought into the building. 

A gate valve with tee handle with cast iron extension stop cock 
box and cover, to be placed on the water supply pipe, near the 
curb line, and the connections with the street main and the 
material of pipe from street to building to be made in accordance 
with the regulations of the City Water Works. 

On the water main just inside of the building wall a double 
seat gate valve must be provided. 

Just beyond main gate valve, full sized valved outlets must 
be left in horizontal pipe for water meter, and a locked meter 
cock with two keys must be provided on water main between 
outlets. The furnishing and setting of meter is not included in 
this contract. 

A 1-inch diameter drain connection with gate valve and hose 
nipple is to be provided on water main pipe near meter connection 
so that a hose may be attached and entire system be drained. 

After leaving meter connections the main water supply pipes 
are to be run up to basement ceiling and along same, with 
branches of the sizes noted, for supplying hot water boiler and all 
the plumbing fixtures, etc., indicated on the drawings. 

An approved positive acting pressure reducing valve is to be 
placed on main water pipe in basement that supplies the plumb- 
ing fixtures where indicated ; gate valves to be placed on each side 
of reducing valve and a valved by-pass connection provided at 
reducing valve. 

An approved 3^ inch dial Japanned iron case, pressure gauge, 
graduated to 200 pounds is to be provided on water main each 
side of the pressure reducing valve. 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 433 

Cold water supply pipes to toilet rooms having three or less 
fixtures to be not less than 1 ^-inches diameter; where more than 
three and not exceeding eight fixtures are located, supply pipe to 
be not less than 1^-inch diameter; where more than eight fixtures 
are located, supply pipe to be not less than 2 inches diameter; 
in event larger supply pipes are required to properly operate the 
number of flushing valves, contractor must furnish same without 
additional cost to the government. 

Hot water supply pipes to toilet rooms having two or more 
fixtures to be f-inch diameter except large basement toilet room 
which must be 1-inch, hot water supply to single basins and 
shower bath to be |-inch diameter and to sinks to be f-inch 
diameter. 

The branch water supply pipes to the different fixtures are 
not shown on the drawings. The contractor must run the same 
in the most direct manner. Especial attention is called to the 
fact that no water pipe in toilet rooms will be permitted to be 
buried below floors or behind marble work or plaster in walls, 
and that all pipes are to be run exposed and so as not to interfere 
with any window or other opening. Risers supplying toilet 
rooms on upper floors to be run as shown on drawings in chases 
or up in vent shafts. 

Water supply pipes to be not less than ^-inch diameter for the 
lavatories and shower baths, f-inch diameter for sinks, 1-inch 
diameter for urinals, l|-inch diameter for water closets. 

A 1^-inch plugged "T" for boiler supply to be provided on 
water main where indicated on basement plan. 

Hot water pipes of the given sizes are to be run from the hot 
water boiler to each lavatory basin, shower bath fixtures, slop 
sink and galvanized iron sink in the building. 

Each hot water riser in the building is to have a circulating 
pipe taken from hot water riser about on a line with the floor, 
just below connection of top fixture supplied from that riser. 
The circulating pipes are to be parallel, the hot water risers and 
the main supply in basement, and the circulating main is to 
return into bottom of hot water boiler at which point a check 
valve is to be installed. Circulating pipe risers to be ^-inch 
diameter pipe and mains one size smaller than hot water mains. 

The water supply pipes at points indicated on basement plan, 
and on main supply to each toilet room and on supply to each 
flushing valve to be fitted with heavy pattern double seat gate 



434 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

valve, circulating pipes to have valves corresponding with hot 
water valves; stop cocks will not be permitted. 

Valves to be placed in accessible position. 

Cast Iron Pipe. — All soil, waste, vent and drain piping in 
the building below the basement floor line, and the connections to 
city sewer in Lincoln Avenue to be best quality "extra heavy" 
cast iron hub and spigot pipe, of the following average weights 
per lineal foot : — 

2-inch diameter pipe to weigh 5^ pounds. 
3-inch diameter pipe to weigh 9^ pounds. 
4-inch diameter pipe to weigh 13 pounds. 
5-inch diameter pipe to weigh 17 pounds. 
6-inch diameter pipe to weigh 20 pounds. 
8-inch diameter pipe to weigh 33^- pounds. 

All fittings for cast iron pipe to be of corresponding quality 
and weight. 

Cast iron pipe must be straight, cylindrical in bore, of even 
thickness, spigot end provided with bead and hub end must be 
perfect so that satisfactory joints of even thickness can be made. 

All connections and turns, where possible, must be made 
where possible with " Y" fittings and | or ^ bends. Sanitary 
bend and tees may be used for connections of branch lines to 
fixtures. 

Wrought Iron Pipe. — All soil, vent and down pipe, above 
basement floor, and all waste and water pipe (unless otherwise 
specified) must be best quality galvanized wrought iron screw 
jointed pipe of standard weight and thickness. 

Fittings for wrought iron or steel soil, waste and drain piping 
must be heavy pattern, galvanized cast iron, recessed and 
beaded, screw jointed, drainage fittings; where space and other 
conditions permit, long turn bends must be used for changes in 
direction of runs and regular pattern Y branches or long turn T 
pattern Y branches must be used for all branch connections. 

The fittings for wrought iron or steel vent and water piping 
must be standard, beaded galvanized, cast iron or galvanized 
malleable iron, screw jointed fittings 

Brass Pipe. — All lavatory waste pipes exposed between 
lavatory slabs and floor line and all water supply pipe in all 
toilet rooms below top line of marble wainscot in said rooms is 
to be brass pipe. For lavatories located in office rooms the 
waste pipes and water pipes thereto exposed between lavatory 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 435 

slab and floor line are to be brass pipe. Especial attention is 
directed to the fact that all the brass water pipe and all brass 
waste pipe on sewer side of traps must be wrought iron pipe size 
and thickness. All brass pipe to be annealed, seamless drawn 
tubing, nickel plated and polished. 

Jointing and Connections. — All joints between cast iron 
pipe and between wrought iron and cast iron pipe are to be made 
with picked oakum gasket and pig lead. Joint to be run full at 
one pouring, and calked solid, flush with hub. End of wrought 
iron pipe when jointed to cast iron pipe to have a ring or part of 
a coupling screwed on to form a spigot. 

Screwed joints to be made with red lead and boiled linseed 
oil or other approved compound. Flange unions or standard 
couplings are to be used on all wrought iron soil pipe, interior 
down spouts and interior roof drainage piping and on all wrought 
iron waste and vent pipes larger than 2-inch diameter. On all 
wrought iron or steel piping 2-inch diameter and smaller, especial 
attention is called to the fact that no malleable iron unions or 
long screws or other packed joints will be permitted; on all such 
pipe either right and left screw couplings or preferably all brass 
ground joint unions must be used. 

Unions on waste pipes on fixture side of trap may be slip or 
flange joints with soft rubber or leather gaskets. 

All unions on brass water pipe and all unions on sewer side of 
traps must be all brass ground joint unions, nickel plated, having 
full area of the pipe on, which they are used and free from all 
obstructions. 

The outlets from roof gutters shall be connected to the interior 
standard galvanized wrought iron or steel down pipes with lead 
pipes of same diameter, weighing not less than 8 pounds per foot. 
Lead pipes to be enlarged to twice the area of pipe at inlet at 
gutter and be flange under gutter lining and soldered thereto. 

The lower end of lead pipe to be wiped (where space permits) 
to brass coupling (recessed for lead pipe) which is to be screwed 
to the iron down spout. 

Hangers and Supports. — Horizontal runs of iron pipe must 
be hung with approved wrought iron or malleable iron pipe 
hangers, spaced not over 10 feet apart, vertical pipes to have 
heavy wrought iron clamps or collars for supports spaced not 
less than one to each floor. All hangers and collars must be 
of a size proportionate to the weight of the pipe supported. 



436 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Chain or wire hangers will not be permitted. 

Pipe Sleeves. — Cast iron or standard galvanized wrought 
iron pipe sleeves as hereinbefore specified must be provided for 
all pipes passing through brick walls except pipes for wall hy- 
drants; pipe sleeves are to be installed through the foundations 
of steps for gas and water supply mains, as indicated on base- 
ment plan. Iron pipe conduits for electric wires must be run 
from all outside light outlets, as shown, to inside of basement 
wall, at ceiling, where junction boxes must be provided. 

Floor and Ceiling Plates. — Where pipes, not hereinafter 
specified to be covered, pass through floors, ceilings and walls of 
finished rooms, they must be fitted with floor and ceiling plates. 
Plates on nickel plated pipe must be heavy cast brass nickel 
plated, and on iron pipes to be cast iron bronzed, same as pipes; 
wall and ceiling plates to be securely fastened in place. 

Bronzing. — After all iron or steel piping has been tested and 
approved, all such pipe exposed in toilet rooms and in other 
finished rooms not hereinafter specified to be covered, must be 
thoroughly cleaned and primed and given one coat of aluminum 
bronze or cleaned and given one coat of shellac and two coats 
lead and oil paint. 

Cleanotjts. — The cast iron cleanout fittings on runs of pipe 
in brick manholes below basement floor are to be extra heavy 
pattern, the full size of pipes in which installed, with gasket and 
cover plates complete. Covers to be secured with wing nuts or 
bolts. # 

A "T" fitting with brass screw jointed cleanout plug is to be 
placed near the base of each vertical soil, down, vent and waste 
pipe in the basement. The cleanout plugs to be the same size 
of pipe in which they are placed. Extension pieces to be placed 
in tees to bring plugs flush with walls where pipes run in chases in 
plastered rooms. Where cleanouts occur back of marble, same 
is to be cut out neatly for access to plug and plug to be finished 
and nickel plated. 

Cleanout Manholes. — The manholes for cleanouts in 
basement are to be of the size and constructed as shown by 
detail on drawing. The walls to be of brick, laid in cement 
mortar and plastered on the inside with same f-inch thick, built 
on a 6-inch thick bed of concrete. Walls of cleanouts may be of 
concrete in lieu of brick specified, if desired. 

Frames and covers constructed of ^-inch thick cast iron with 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 437 

iron lifting handles and diagonal channeled top surfaces to be 
provided and set for cleanout manholes; top of frames and cover 
to be set flush with finished floor line. Where cleanout man- 
holes occur in rooms with wood floors, the cast iron cover must 
be set flush with finished wood floor. 

Running Traps. — A running trap with brass screw jointed 
recessed or countersunk cleanout plug set flush with basement 
floor line must be placed on connections which are to be extended 
under another contract to cesspools in mail lift and ash lift pits, 
where indicated on basement plan. Cast iron P traps with 
recessed cleanout screw-plugs flush with basement floor are to 
be placed at the base of all down spouts from the low roof over 
P. O. work room. 

Valves. — Valves, except the compression stops specified 
under "Fixtures," must be heavy pattern double seat brass gate 
valves of first class and approved construction. Valves on brass 
pipe to be finished all over and nickel plated. Valves on flush 
meter connections to be of the lock shield pattern with detach- 
able keys. 

Each valve must have the name or trade marks of the manu- 
facturer, either cast or stamped on same. 

Pipe Covering, etc. — After the system of cold and hot 
water pipes is in place, connected, tested and approved, this 
contractor must cover all cold and hot water pipes in the building 
(except the brass, nickel plated piping with first class approved 
non-conducting sectional felt covering, canvas jacketed, put on 
in a workmanlike manner using solid brass bands of not less than 
No. 30 B and S gauge or less than f-inch wide, and moulded, 
sectional removable covering for valves and fittings. Coverings 
to be not less than f-inch thick, for cold water piping to be lined 
with tar paper and for hot water piping to be fined with asbestos 
paper. 

Duplicate samples of coverings and brass bands proposed to 
be used must be sent to the supervising architect for approval 
before the coverings are applied. After the coverings have been 
applied and accepted they are to be painted with three coats 
of best quality lead and oil paint, finishing tint to be approved. 

The brass bands to be removed while covering is being painted 
and replaced after paint is dry. 

Bidders must state on the proposal sheet the amount included 
in total bid for covering hot and cold water pipes. 



438 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



A neat brass nickel plated escutcheon, held in place by set 
screw or spring clip is to be used at point where galvanized iron 
water pipe ends and brass pipe begins to protect end of covering 
on galvanized iron pipe. 

SCHEDULE OF FIXTURES. 



Basement. 

Water closets 13 

Urinals 5 

Shower baths 3 

Rectangular lavatories .... 4 

Corner lavatories 2 

Galvanized iron sink 1 

Slop sinks 2 

Water heater 1 

Fire hose reels 2 

Wall hydrants 6 

First Story. 

Water closet 1 

Rectangular lavatories .... 2 

Corner lavatories 3 

Slop sinks 2 

Fire hose reels 3 



Second Story. 

Water closets 1 1 

Urinals 2 

Rectangular lavatories .... 6 

Corner lavatories 6 

Slop sink 1 

Fire hose reels 3 

Shower bath 1 

Mezzanine Floor. 

Water closets 2 

Rectangular lavatory .... 1 
Slop sink 1 

Third Floor. 

Water closets 11 

Urinals 2 

Rectangular lavatories .... 7 

Corner lavatories 5 

Slop sink 1 

Fire hose reels 2 



Water Closets. — Furnish and set in place where indicated 
on plans, large size, extra heavy pattern flushing rim, siphon jet 
water closets, with trap, moulded in earthenware, substantial 
pedestal base, floor flange, etc. Closets to be "Class A" and 
free from fire cracks or other defects, and are to be straight and 
true in shape. 

Each closet bowl must weight not less than 75 pounds. 

Closets to be white vitreous earthenware, unwarped, with 
flanges, tops, etc., in true planes, each to have pottery's vitreous 
stamp under the glaze, of first class construction, free from defects 
as to material, workmanship and finish. 

Water closet connections in basement toilet room to be made 
with 4-inch diameter drawn lead piping weighing 8 pounds to 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 439 

the foot, lower end to have a brass ferrule at least 1 inch longer 
than depth of cast iron hub into which it is to be calked ; the lead 
to extend not less than 1 inch inside of the ferrule and connected 
to same with a wiped joint. Upper end of lead connection to be 
soldered to a heavy cast brass floor flange. 

The water closet connections above basement are to be made 
with heavy pattern screw jointed cast brass floor flanges and 4- 
inch diameter wrought iron nipples of proper length screwed to 
wrought iron soil pipe fittings ; cast brass floor flanges with male 
thread may be used in lieu of above. 

Closets to be bolted to the brass floor flanges with brass bolts; 
exposed heads of nuts of bolts to be nickel plated. 

Joints between closets and floor flanges to be made absolutely 
water- and gas-tight with special moulded gaskets, properly satu- 
rated to prevent rotting and drying. Rubber gaskets will not 
be permitted for this connection. 

Approved screw joint connections may be made between water 
closets and soil pipes in lieu of the connections specified above 
if so desired by the contractor. 

An approved rubber buffer is to be provided at each water 
closet for seat to strike against when raised. 

Seats for closets to be well seasoned white oak strongly framed 
and highly polished, not less than 1J inches finished thickness. 
Seats to be attached directly to the closet bowls with heavy 
pattern brass nickel plated hinges. 

A heavy pattern brass nickel plated double coat hook and 
a brass nickel plated toilet paper holder for roll paper must be 
furnished and securely bolted to the marble work near each water 
closet as directed by the superintendent of construction; paper 
holders must be constructed so that the roll cannot be removed 
until all the paper is unrolled. 

Urinals. — The urinals to be large size, siphon jet lipped patte, 
flushing rim with trap moulded in earthenware, designed to hold 
a body of water. Urinals to be " Class A " white vitreous earthen- 
ware, unwarped, with backs, etc., in true planes. Each to have 
pottery's vitreous stamp under glaze, and to be of first class 
construction, free from defects as to material, workmanship and 
finish. 

All exposed metal fittings in connection with urinals to be 
finished brass nickel plated. 

Flushing Valves. — Each water closet and urinal is to be 



440 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

provided with an approved brass heavily nickel plated flushing 
valve, with heavy operating lever; handles of flushing valves to 
be finished brass heavily nickel plated and must be permanently 
fastened to the operating levers. Valves operated by push 
button device will be acceptable in lieu of valves operated by 
lever. 

Each valve must have a regulating device to adjust the amount 
of flush water and give a proper after fill; the flushing valves 
must have no springs except in connection with push button. 

A finished brass heavily nickel plated ground joint union must 
be provided on connection between each cut off valve and flush- 
ing valve. 

Each bidder must understand that he will be required to guar- 
antee the flushing valves he proposes to use for a period of one 
year, if his proposal is accepted; and to guarantee the proper 
operation of valves during said time the contractor will be required 
to make all necessary repairs and keep in proper working order 
all said valves at his own expense. 

If at any time before the expiration of said one year the 
government decides that the valves supplied are unsatisfactory, 
they must be removed by this contractor, who must furnish and 
place on each fixture specified a new flush valve; the department 
reserving the right to select the make of flush valve to be substi- 
tuted. 

Lavatories. — Lavatories are to be approved pattern, " Class 
A," heavy white vitreous earthenware. Rectangular lavatories 
except those in office rooms to be without backs, not less than 
24 inches x 20 inches with bowls not less than 12 inches x 16 
inches. Corner lavatories to be not less than 23 inches x 23 
inches, with bowls not less than 12 inches x 16 inches, and are to 
have an integral back not less than 6 inches high. Rectangular 
lavatories in office rooms to have integral back 6 inches high. 
Lavatories must be properly supported on heavy cast brass 
nickel plated brackets of simple design. Brackets to be secured 
to wall with through bolts or heavy expansion bolts with nickel 
plated heads. 

The rectangular lavatories in toilet rooms are to be set off from 
the marble wainscot not less than 2 inches, and when two or 
more lavatories are set side by side there must be a space of not 
less than 2 inches between fixtures. 

A vitreous earthenware one piece two basin lavatory of approved 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 441 

design, not less than 22 inches x 48 inches, having two bowls 
moulded in single fixture, will be acceptable, in lieu of two single 
bowl fixtures hereinbefore specified, where two bowls are required 
side by side. 

Each individual lavatory bowt to have an approved l|-inch 
cast brass nickel plated non-siphoning trap without ball float 
or other movable parts and without vent connections. Trap to 
have either male or female 1^-inch iron pipe thread connection 
for waste pipe. If brass coupling is used to form female connec- 
tion it must be screwed to the body of trap, not soldered. The 
connection between tail piece of lavatory waste coupling and trap 
may be made with rubber expanding ring or leather washer. 
The waste plug coupling of lavatory must be cast brass, nickel 
plated where exposed, neatly fitted to recess of bowl, with 
strainer bars and patent over-flow arrangement. The coupling 
nuts used to assemble trap and waste pipe connections to be cast 
brass with chased threads. No stamped or rolled nuts will be 
accepted. If it is necessary to provide a union in waste pipe on 
the sewer side of trap, same to consist of a metal to metal union, 
without contracted area or obstruction, exposed parts of unions 
to be nickel plated and polished. The nipples and pipe connec- 
tions between trap and concealed piping to be standard, annealed, 
drawn brass tubing, full iron pipe size with screw threaded joints 
throughout. 

Approved plain heavy pattern " Fuller" hot and cold water 
faucets with ground joint union in bodies, so that same can be 
readily taken apart for repairs, must be provided for each lava- 
tory basin; the hot and cold water supply pipes to each faucet 
must be provided with a brass nickel plated, milled wheel com- 
pression stop with stuffing-box. The connection between faucet 
and supply pipe to consist of a ground joint swivel connection. 
The coupling nuts used to be of substantial design to prevent 
stretching. The swivel or tail piece to be of heavy brass with 
ground cone and iron pipe thread with ^-inch reducing socket 
screwed to same and soldered; the whole to be polished and nickel 
plated. The mechanism of faucet to be perfect in every respect. 
The eccentric and stem to be perfectly fitted and the gum ball 
to be secured to stem with cone shaped expanding washer and 
brass hexagon nut. Packing nut and gland to be so designed 
that a water-tight, easy moving joint will be obtained. Weight 
of each faucet to be not less than two (2) pounds. 



442 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Each basin must also have a soap holder and chain stay set 
opposite center of basin with No. 3 safety chain and rubber plug. 

A towel rack must be provided near each lavatory; racks for 
single basin lavatories to be 24 inches long, for more than one 
basin to be the combined length of lavatories. 

Towel racks to be constructed of f-inch diameter brass tubing 
with ornamental caps at ends and supported about 3 inches from 
wall with heavy pattern brass brackets securely bolted to wall 
where directed by superintendent. 

All metal fittings and connections of lavatories must be finished 
brass, heavily nickel plated. 

Slop Sinks. — The slop sinks in toilet and janitor rooms to 
be not less than 18 inches x 22 inches x 12 inches deep of best 
grade heavy plain white earthenware, " Class A," glazed inside 
and Outside, fitted with finished brass nickel plated flushing 
rims. 

Sinks to have brass strainer on the waste and to be provided 
with a 3-inch cast brass nickel plated non-siphoning trap standard 
without vent. 

Connections to waste pipes to be made similar to connections 
specified for water closets. 

Hot and cold water connections to be provided for each sink, 
fitted with approved combination faucets, and with a direct 
valved water supply to flushing rims, connections to be secured 
to marble wainscot with brass clamps and expansion bolts. All 
fittings to be finished brass nickel plated. 

Hot and cold water connections to be provided with brass 
nickel plated milled wheel compression stops with stuffing-boxes. 

Galvanized Iron Sink. — The engineer's sink in basement to 
be 36 inches x 18 inches x 6 inches deep, galvanized iron, provided 
with galvanized iron back with air chambers for water connections 
and supported on two galvanized iron brackets secured to wall 
with expansion bolts, located where shown on drawing. Sink 
to have a brass strainer on waste and a 2-inch diameter rough 
brass non-siphoning trap without vent designed for connection 
to 2-inch standard galvanized iron pipe. 

Hot and cold water connections are to be provided for sink 
and fitted with J-inch diameter "Fuller" pattern brass faucets; 
the cold water faucet to have 1-inch hose connection. 

Water supply connections to be galvanized wrought iron 
fitted with rough brass gate valves. 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 443 

Shower Bath Fixtures. — The shower bath fixtures in base- 
ment and second floor toilet rooms are to be approved pattern, 
adjustable ball joint, rain shower; face of shower head to be 
removable and not less than 5-inch diameter. Fixture to be 
provided with a brass nickel plated non-scalding regulating 
valve with hand spray attachment; the hand spray to be not less 
than 3j-inch diameter, with rubber ring, hard wood handle and 
five feet of best quality rubber tubing, with hook for holding 
hand spray when not in use. Hand spray attachment to be 
valved. 

Each shower bath fixture to be properly secured in partition 
between dressing room and shower space and the hot and cold 
water supply pipes to shower bath are to be provided with brass 
nickel plated milled wheel, compression stops, with stuffing- 
boxes. 

Drainage from each shower to be through a brass combination 
floor drain and trap with 2-inch connection to soil pipe; top of 
cover of floor drain to have hinged strainer cover not less than 
9-inch diameter. 

The hot and cold water pipe connections to each fixture to be 
made in the proper manner, and each connection to be fitted 
with a swing check valve. 

All metal fittings and connections of shower bath to be finished 
brass, heavily nickel plated. 

A towel rack same as specified for lavatories and two double 
coat hooks, same as specified for water closets, must be furnished 
and securely bolted to marble work in each dressing room; an 
approved soap holder and a nickel plated tilting sponge basin 
11-inch diameter by 5-inch depth must also be furnished and 
securely bolted to the marble work in each shower bath enclosure. 
In lieu of tilting sponge basin above noted a 7^-inch diameter 
brass nickel plated sponge holder may be used. 

The above trimmings to be placed where shown on drawing 
M-48. 

Hot Water Boiler and Connections. — A 24-inch diameter 
by 60-inch long horizontal galvanized steel range boiler is to be 
furnished and placed where shown on basement plan and 
supported near the basement ceiling with substantial strap 
irons. 

The boiler is to contain a brass steam pipe coil containing not 
less than 36 linear feet of 1-inch diameter brass pipe of standard 



444 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

pipe size and thickness. Steam coil to have inlet at top and 
outlet at bottom. Steam connections to coil will be made by 
the heating contractor. 

Connections lj-inch diameter are also to be provided in boiler 
for cold water supply and hot water discharge; circulating pipe 
connection is also to be provided and f-inch diameter connections 
for safety valve, thermometer and draw-off, also connections 
for hot water heater. Cold water supply to boiler to be provided 
with a check valve. 

All pipe openings in boiler are to be reinforced, and the boiler 
and steam coil tested to 150 pounds hydrostatic pressure. 

A f-inch diameter, lever pattern brass safety valve is to be 
provided, and a f-inch draw off pipe with gate valve is to be con- 
nected into bottom of boiler and run to engineer's sink, the dis- 
charge from safety valve to be connected into draw off pipe 
outside of valve. 

Hot Water Heater. — Furnish and connect in basement, 
where shown on basement plan, one cast iron self contained 
water heater of approved construction, with fire pot not less than 
12-inch diameter. 

A smoke pipe of the required size, constructed of No. 20 U.S.G. 
galvanized iron, is to be provided for heater and connected into 
smoke breeching from the heating boilers where provision for 
same will be made by the heating contractor, smoke pipe to be 
provided with substantial damper and cleanout plug. 

Hot water heater must be properly connected to the hot water 
boiler, connections to be not less than 1^-inch diameter. Flow 
connection into head of boiler near top, and return connection 
in bottom of boiler at opposite end. 

Fire Hose Connections. — ■ At points indicated on plans 
2-inch branch connections are to be taken from the high pressure 
water main and the 2-inch risers for fire hose connections. Con- 
nections to be made about 6 feet from the floor line, and each 
connection be provided with a 2-inch diameter heavy pattern 
brass nickel plated angle valve with renewable elastic disc 
and brass nickel plated hose nipple. 

Risers to continue full size, 6 feet above top connection and 
end capped water and air tight. 

Each fire hose connection to have a swinging fire hose reel or 
swinging hose rack of approved pattern properly secured in 
place and provided with 75 feet of 2-inch diameter best quality 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 445 

"Underwriters Standard" imlined very closely woven linen 
hose, fitted with nozzle and couplings; nozzle and couplings to 
be finished brass, nickel plated. If hose rack is used hose 
must hang in vertical loops. 

Wall Hydrants. — Approved 1-inch diameter brass face 
anti-freezing wall hydrants with detachable keys are to be 
provided and properly connected to high pressure water main at 
points indicated and noted on basement plan. The face plates 
of wall hydrants to be set flush with outside face of wall. 

A gate valve is to be placed on the supply pipe to each wall 
hydrant, and the supply pipe graded from cut off valve to 
hydrant so as to drain to outside of building. 

Plumbing Marble Work. — All marble used in toilet rooms 
and janitors' closets to be best quality hard non- absorbent marble, 
white or light colored selected stock; free from heavy dark 
streaks, flaws, or other defects ; and must be true and out of wind, 
cut to the required shapes and lengths, edges square and backs 
sawed fair and in accordance with drawing M-48. 

No marble is to be installed until sample hereinbefore called 
for has been approved. 

The inside of all windows in toilet rooms coming below the top 
line of marble wainscot are to be of marble. 

Marble work in toilet rooms to be finished, bedded and secured 
in place as specified under " Marble Work." 

Wainscot for Toilet Rooms. — Marble wainscot to be placed 
in all toilet rooms and janitors' closets to be |-inch thick and 
6 feet or 4 feet high as indicated or noted on drawings. Wainscot 
to be bedded, jointed and secured in place as specified under 
"Marble Work" in construction specification. 

Marble Borders, etc. — Marble borders for toilet rooms and 
janitors' closet to be of dimensions given on drawing No. 
M-48. 

Floor borders, etc., to be bedded in mortar composed of equal 
parts Portland cement and sand. 

Terrazzo Floors for Toilet Rooms and Janitors' Closets. — 
All toilet rooms and janitors' closets are to have terrazzo floors 
with white marble chips which are to be constructed and laid 
as specified under "Terrazzo Floors," in construction specifica- 
tion. 

Water Closet Enclosures, etc. — Water closet enclosures 
in toilet rooms, above basement, to be marble and constructed, 



446 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

supported and braced as shown on miscellaneous drawing No. 
M-48. 

Each water closet enclosure must be provided with a solid 
paneled door constructed of well seasoned, quarter sawed, clear, 
selected white oak in accordance with drawing No. M-48. The 
door must be finished, properly filled and given three coats best 
quality hard oil finish, first two coats to be rubbed with fine sand 
paper and last coat rubbed with pumice and oil to a smooth dull 
finish. 

Each door must be hung with a pair of approved heavy 
pattern hinges with adjustable springs; hinges must be secured 
to marble work and to doors with socket fastenings and through 
bolts. 

Hinges to weigh per pair not less than 5 pounds. 

The spring hinges must be set so as to hold the doors open 
inside of enclosures. 

Each of the enclosure doors must be fitted with a heavy pattern 
bolt with rubber buffer on handle and each door opening pro- 
vided with a stop with rubber faced buffer. 

The partitions between water closets in the toilet room in the 
basement are to be marble 2 feet 1 inch x 5 feet x 1| inches thick, 
set 1 foot above floor; supported and secured in place as shown 
by dotted outline on drawing No. M-48. 

Urinal Partitions, etc. — The partitions, backs, caps, etc., 
for urinals to be of marble, constructed and braced as shown by 
detail on miscellaneous drawing No. M-48. 

Openings required for passage of pipes through marble backs 
and cap pieces to be neatly cut, and the pipes passing through 
same to be fitted with ornamental collars. 

Bath Enclosures. — The marble partitions forming shower 
bath enclosures and dressing rooms in connection with same in 
basement and second floor toilet rooms must be constructed, 
supported and braced as shown on drawing No. M-48. 

Joints in marble work of shower bath enclosure and between 
the floor drain and marble floor slab must be made water-tight 
with cement composed of glycerine and litharge. 

The marble floor slab in the shower bath enclosure of the 
second floor toilet room is to be set in a 4-pound sheet lead pan. 
The top of marble slab must be set 1 inch below the finished 
level of dressing room floor and must extend under the wainscot, 
sill and partition. The lead pan is to be turned up outside the 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 447 

slab, with edges flush with finished floor, and must be soldered 
tight around floor drain. 

A finished quartered oak corner seat, 18 inches x 18 inches x 
\\ inch thick must be furnished in each dressing room as indi- 
cated; seats to be supported on two heavy pattern brass nickel 
plated angles securely bolted to the marble work. 

Entrance to dressing rooms must be provided with finished 
four paneled doors 2 feet 2 inches wide by 6 feet high, hung 4 
inches above the floor. Doors to be constructed and finished 
similar to water closet enclosure doors and hardware to be the 
same. 

Trimmings for Marble Work. — All metal fittings in con- 
nection with marble work, hardware for enclosure doors, etc., to 
be finished brass heavily nickel plated, all pipe standards and 
bracings to be annealed seamless drawn brass tubing, not less 
than No. 16 Brown and Sharp gauge, polished and nickel plated. 

The framing flanges to be secured to floor and brick walls with 
expansion bolts and to terra cotta partitions with through bolts 
with flat heads or washers so that same can be concealed by 
plaster. 

GAS PIPING. 

The contractor is to put in place complete the system of 
gas piping for supplying all the lights indicated on the drawings. 

The gas fixtures, except the lamp standards at Riverside 
Avenue entrance will not be included in this contract. 

The gas outlets must be arranged so as to allow placing of 
electric conduit boxes for combination fixtures. 

The contractor must pay all fees and charges for bringing a 
4-inch diameter gas supply pipe into the building, leaving capped 
outlet where indicated. This contractor must furnish and place 
at curb line a stop cock or tee handle gate valve on gas pipe, 
also a cast iron extension stop cock box, located as directed. 
Gas main just inside of basement wall to be provided with a 
brass gas cock. The gas pipes in building to be "Standard" 
gauge black wrought iron, and all fittings to be galvanized 
malleable iron beaded fittings. The kind of pipe used from 
street main to building and manner of laying to be in accordance 
with regulations of local gas company. A cast iron pipe sleeve 
extending through foundations of steps to the inside of building 
wall is to be provided for gas main as shown on the basement plan. 



448 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



The size of gas pipes to be in no case less than sizes given in the 
following schedule, except in basement, where the sizes marked 
on drawings must be installed. There will also be two 3-inch 
main gas risers as shown. 

The gas meter will not be furnished or set under the contract: 



Size of Pipe, 


Greatest Length 


Greatest Number of 


Inches. 


Allowed, Feet. 


Burners. 


1 

2 


30 


5 


f 


50 


20 


1 


70 


35 


li 


100 


65 


11 


150 


100 


2 


200 


200 


24 


300 


300 



The main gas pipe of size given on basement plan to start at 
point indicated with capped inlet near basement ceiling, run 
along same to vent shaft, up vent shafts and at each story to 
have branches of sizes proportionate to the number of outlets 
and lights to be supplied. 

The gas mains and branches thereto to be supported close to 
basement ceiling with wrought iron or malleable iron hangers 
and securely supported in shaft in an approved manner. 

Risers to brackets in plastered rooms to be recessed into walls 
so as to be entirely concealed by plaster. Gas pipes in basement 
and in attic space are to be run exposed. All other gas pipes to 
be concealed, excepting those for lights on bottom of 15-inch 
girders forming skylight framing over first floor P. O. workroom, 
which will be run exposed on underside of girders. 

The pipes supplying bracket lights in each story and ceiling 
lights in story below are to be run in the construction of that 
floor. 

Gas outlets for bracket lights to be set approximately 7 feet 
above floor. Supply pipes for P. O. screen lights to be taken 
from main near basement ceiling at points indicated and run up 
concealed in screens and along same in space provided, about 
7 feet above floor, with outlets at approximately that height at 
points indicated. 



MODERN SPECIFICATIONS 449 

All pipes to be run level where possible, and are to be without 
traps, and at foot of main riser is to be placed a "T!" fitting and 
piece of pipe of same size with reducing fitting connected to the 
bottom of "T" for the purpose of collecting drip and scales; a 
short piece of f-inch pipe with a gas cock to be screwed to reduc- 
ing fitting so that drip can be drawn off when necessary. 

The supply branches to each exterior lighting fixture (except 
lamp bracket at mailing platform), the screen lights and the main 
supply branch to each floor are to be fitted with gas cocks, so 
that supply to said lights can be controlled. Cocks must be 
placed where indicated or directed, easily accessible. 

If conditions require that controlling gas cocks be located in 
floor construction, they must be set in a pocket and over said 
pocket a finished cast brass plate is to be set and secured in place 
with screws so that it may be removed for access to gas cocks. 

The gas outlets for all vaults are to be taken from gas pipe 
below floor and run in wall alongside of vault door as indicated 
to a distance of 5 feet above floor line, outlets to extend 
just beyond finished plaster line as hereinafter specified and end 
to be capped. 

A plugged outlet of size given is to be provided on gas main in 
basement at point indicated, for connection to special furniture 
fixtures which will be placed in the future. 

Especial attention of the contractor is called to the gas nipples 
for fixtures which must be at right angles to the walls and ceilings 
from which they project and must project from finished plaster 
line of ceiling not less than f inch nor more than 1| inches and 
from finished plaster line of walls not less than J inch nor more 
than | inch and to be properly fitted and capped. 

No branch pipe from main to be less than ^-inch internal 
diameter. 

Outlets for all brackets, vault outlets and drops for all chande- 
liers containing four (4) lights or less are to be f-inch diameter, 
drops for chandeliers containing 5 lights and not exceeding 10 
lights to be ^-inch and for greater than 10 lights, drop is to be 
f~inch diameter. 

Drops for chandeliers to come from a centre of a "T" branch, 
and where a chandelier occurs at the end of a run of pipe the 
extra opening in the tee is to be fitted with a capped 12-inch 
length of pipe in order to form a support for fixture. 

All gas pipe to be run regularly and in a workmanlike manner, 



450 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

using all necessary fittings, and in no case springing or bending 
the pipe to reach a point desired. 

Pipe and fittings to be put together with red lead, litharge or 
any approved compound. 

No gas fitters' cement will be allowed except at outlet caps. 

After all gas piping has been completed, tested and approved, 
all gas pipe (including pipe buried in walls and floors) in the 
building must be cleaned and given one coat of best quality 
asphaltum paint. 

Testing. — The entire system of soil, waste, drain and vent 
piping in the building is to be tested with water before the fixtures 
are connected. Openings are to be plugged where necessary and 
the entire system filled with water to the level of the roof gutters 
and allowed to stand for six hours for inspection, after which, 
if test is satisfactory, the trenches are to be filled and fixtures 
connected. 

The 8-inch sewer connection between building and city sewer 
must be tested before the immediate connections are made to 
sewer by filling the same with water to top of temporary sections 
of pipe about 10 feet high above basement floor line, connected 
to the end of lines just inside of the building. The lines proved 
absolutely tight to the satisfaction of the Superintendent, after 
which water may be drawn off, the connections made to city 
sewer and trenches back filled. 

After the fixtures have been connected the smoke test is to 
be applied to the sanitary system, and the entire system proved 
tight when filled with smoke under pressure equal to one inch of 
water, to the satisfaction of the Superintendent. 

At the completion of the work the water supply system is to 
be tested to a hydrostatic pressure of 150 pounds to the square 
inch. 

The entire gas pipe system inside of building must be tested 
with air pressure equal to 15 inches of mercury as soon as laid; 
also before the last coat of plaster is put on, and again on com- 
pletion of the plastering. 

Costs of tests to be borne by the contractors, who must furnish 
this office, through the Superintendent, with certificate that 
satisfactory tests have been made. The certificate must be 
signed by the Superintendent. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 451 



Various Receipts and Short Cuts. 

Miscellaneous Receipts. — Test for Sewer-gas. — 
Saturate unglazed paper with a solution of 1 ounce pure lead 
acetate in half a pint of rain-water; let it partially dry, then 
expose in the room suspected of containing sewer-gas. 

The presence of gas in any considerable quantity soon darkens 
or blackens the test-paper. A suspected joint of a pipe can be 
tested by wrapping with a single layer of white muslin, moist- 
ened with the above solution, and if gas is escaping it will darken 
the cloth. 

To Clean Copper. — Take 1 ounce of oxalic acid, 6 ounces of 
rotten stone, § ounce of gum arabic, all in powder, 1 ounce of 
sweet-oil, and sufficient water to make a paste. Apply a small 
portion and rub dry with a flannel or leather. 

Removal of Stains from Granite. — A paste of 1 ounce of 
ox-gall, 1 gill of strong solution of caustic soda, 1J tablespoonfuls 
of turpentine, with enough pipe-clay to make it thick, and scour 
well. 

Or, mix together \ pound soft soap, 1 ounce washing-soda, and 
a piece of sulphate of soda as big as a walnut. Rub it over the 
surface proposed to clean, let it stand twenty-four hours, and 
then wash off; or, smoke and soot stains can be removed with a 
hard scrubbing-brush and fine sharp sand, to which add a little 
potash. 

Or, use strong lye, or make a hot solution of 3 pounds of 
common washing-soda dissolved in 1 gallon of water. Lay it on 
the granite with a paint-brush. 

To Clean Marble. — Mix 2 parts by weight of sal-soda, 1 
part powdered chalk or fine bolted whiting, and 1 part pow- 
dered pumice-stone with enough water to make a thin batter, 
and by the means of a scrubbing-brush apply it to the spots; 
then wash off with soap and water. 

Or, to remove grease spots from marble, moisten fine whiting 
or fullers' earth with benzine, apply it in a thick layer to the spots, 
and let it remain for some time; then remove the dry paste and 
wash the spot with soap and water. 

To extract oil stains from marble, make a paste by mixing 
2 parts of fullers' earth, 1 part soft soap, and 1 part potash with 



452 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

boiling water. Apply this paste to the spots and let it remain 
three or four hours. 

To Remove Paint from Window Glass. — Put sufficient 
saleratus into hot water to make a strong solution, and with this 
saturate the paint which adheres to the glass. Let it remain 
until nearly dry, then rub it off with a woollen cloth. 

To Make Modelling Clay. — Knead dry clay with glycerine 
instead of water, work thoroughly with the hands, moisten work 
at intervals of two or three days, and keep covered to prevent 
evaporation of moisture. 

To Clean Paint. — When paint is washed with any strong 
alkaline solution, such as soda or strong soap, the oil of the 
paint is liable to be changed to soap and the paint is seriously 
injured. To avoid this, take some of the best whiting, and have 
ready some clean warm water and a piece of flannel, which dip 
into the water and squeeze nearly dry; then take up as much 
whiting as will adhere to it, apply it to the painted surface, 
when a little rubbing will quickly remove any dirt or grease 
stains. After this wash the part well with clean water, rubbing 
it dry with a soft chamois. Paint thus cleaned will look as well 
as when first put on, and the operation may be tried without 
fear of injury to the most delicate colors. It answers far better 
than the use of soap, and does not require more than one-half 
the time and labor. Another simple method is the following: 
Put a tablespoonful of aqua ammonia in a quart of moderately 
hot water, dip in a flannel cloth, and with this merely wipe over 
the surface of the woodwork. No rubbing is necessary. The 
first recipe is preferable, except where the paint is badly dis- 
colored. 

To Age or Color Copper. — Add about 1 pound of powdered 
sal ammoniac to 5 gallons of water, dissolve it thoroughly, 
and let it stand at least twenty-four hours before putting it 
on the copper. Apply it to the copper with a brush, being 
sure to cover every place; let it stand for a day and sprinkle 
with water, using a brush to sprinkle the water on so that it 
will not run and streak the copper. After standing overnight 
the color will be as desired. The same effect can be produced 
by using vinegar and salt instead of the sal ammoniac, using 
£ pound of salt to 2 gallons of vinegar. 

To Remove Old Glass from Sash. — Take a hot iron and 
run along the surface of the putty, when it can easily be re- 
moved with a chisel. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 453 

Pitch of Roofs. — With a view to aiding those in the trade 
who have more "or less roofing to do the St. Paul Roofing 5 
Cornice & Ornament Company has issued a table giving the 
minimum pitch of roofs in inches to the foot for the following 
kinds of roofing materials. 

Asphalt and composition \ 

Tin 1 

Corrugated iron 3 

Sheet iron 3 

Copper 2 

Lead 2 

Thatch 6 

Shingles 4 

Slate 4 

Tiles, terra-cotta. 4 

To Clean Brass (U. S. Government Method). — Make a 
mixture of one part common nitric acid and one-half part sul- 
phuric acid in a stone jar, having also a pail of fresh water 
and a box of sawdust. Dip the articles into the acid, then 
soak them in the water, and finally rub them in sawdust and 
they will take on a brilliant color. If the brass is greasy it 
must be first dipped in a strong solution of potash and soda 
in water, and then rinsed, so that the grease may be removed, 
leaving the acid free to act. 

Belting. — Horse-power of a belt equals velocity in feet per 
minute multiplied by the width; the sum divided by 1000. 
One inch single belt moving at 1000 feet per minute = 1 horse- 
power. Double belts about 700 feet per minute per 1 inch 
width = 1 horse-power. For double belts of great length, over 
large pulleys, allow about 500 feet per minute per 1 inch 
of width per horse-power. Power should be communicated 
through the lower running side of a belt; the upper side to 
carry the slack. Average breaking weight of a belt, T 3 gXl inch 
wide: leather, 530 lbs.; three-ply rubber, 600 lbs. The strength 
of a belt increases directly as its width. The coefficient of 
safety for laced belts is: leather = T \ breaking weight; rubber 
= $ breaking weight. 

To Find the Diameter of a Pulley for any Speed.— Mul- 
tiply diameter of pulley on main shaft by the revolutions of main 
shaft and divide by the number of revolutions (or speed) re- 



454 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

quired, the quotient will be the diameter in inches of required 
pulley. 

Flux for Soldering Zinc. — Dissolve small bits of zinc, or 
zinc drops, in muriatic acid, mixed with an equal bulk of water. 

To Make Chimneys Soot-proof. — To make chimneys soot- 
proof use salt in the mortar to plaster the flues, one part of 
salt to three of lime. 

To Lead Hinges, etc., in Stone. — In leading hinges into 
stone if a few drops of oil is put in the hole before running in 
the molten lead it will prevent the lead from flying or ex- 
ploding. 

To Bend Lead Pipe. — Fill the pipe with dry sand, plug each 
end, and bend into the desired shape. 

Paint for Shingles. — A good paint for shingles is made 
by heating one barrel of coal-tar, 10 pounds asphaltum, 10 
pounds ground slate, and 2 gallons dead oil; add the oil after 
heating the mixture. 

Varnish for Pattern Work. — Shellac cut with grain 
alcohol is the best varnish for pattern makers. Put the gum 
in a glazed earthenware jar and cover it with grain alcohol. 
For fine light work add a little more alcohol. Never add oxalic 
acid to the varnish to clear it when old. Rather throw it 
out and prepare a fresh supply. 

To Distinguish Steel from Iron. — To distinguish steel 
from iron apply a drop of nitric acid and let it remain for a 
moment, then rinse with water. If the metal is iron a whitish- 
gray spot will remain; if steel, a black stain. 

Filling-wax for Granite. — A filling that is used to fill up 
holes, etc., in granite monuments, is made by melting gum 
dammar in a shallow vessel over a bath of water, so as not 
to burn it. When quite thin stir in granite dust, and add 
enough marble dust to lighten it to the color of the granite. 
Stir in all the dust the gum will easily hold; roll out into long 
sticks, and it is ready for use. To apply heat an iron red hot 
and hold it over the stone, and at the same time hold the stick 
near the monument and it will melt, and can then be pressed 
into the cavity. When cold pare down with a sharp tool 
and touch up lightly with a bush-hammer or chisel. 

To Toughen Plaster-casts. — To toughen plaster-casts 
immerse them till well saturated in a hot solution of glue. 
When treated in this way a nail can be driven into them without 
cracking them. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 



455 



Impression- wax. — To make squeezing-wax for taking 
reverse impressions of carvings, mouldings, or other work take 
9 ounces of beeswax, 12 ounces lard, 3 ounces olive-oil, and 5 
pounds whiting (or in like proportion). Melt the three former 
ingredients together, then add the whiting, pounding it up well 
before mixing. When cold knead well together with the hands ; 
or, take $ pound of hogs' lard, h pound of beeswax, 2 pounds of 
flour, 1 gill of linsced-oil ; melt all down. If too sticky add more 
flour; if too hard melt down again and add a little more lard. 

Moulds for Plaster-casts. — Take the very best glue you 
can get, place it in cold water at night, the next morning take 
it out; you will find it swollen; the water it has absorbed 
during the night is sufficient to melt it by heat; mix then as 
much thick glycerine with it as you had glue, and keep the 
vessel containing them in a steam- or water-bath till all the 
water is about evaporated and there is left as much in weight 
as the weight of the dry glue and glycerine taken together 
amounted to. This will make a compound of glue and glycerine 
which will never dry, and a mould of it can be used over and 
over again. 

To Clean Metals. — Copper, brass, zinc, and other metals 
are cleaned by the suitable acids which act on them. Such 
cleansing solutions may be prepared for the different metals 
as follows: 





Water. 


Nitric. 


Sulphuric. 


Hydro- 
chloric. 


For copper and brass. c . . . 


100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


50 
3 
3 

id 


100 
8 
12 
10 


2 
2 




3 


Zinc 

Silver. 









It is best to make two such solutions, one being reserved for 
a final dip or wash; as this becomes weaker it can be used 
for the first wash, accompanied by occasional rubbing with 
sand, etc., according to the nature of the object being cleaned. 

Paper under Tin. — Tar or asphalt paper should never be 
used under a tin roof, as there is an acid which comes from the 
paper which destroys the tin. When paper is used under tin it 
should be a paper that will not draw dampness. A thick layer 



456 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

of paper should be put under all tin laid on concrete, to form a 
cushion and prevent any sharp projections from cutting the tin. 

To Find the Power of a Lever. — Rule. — As the distance 
between the weight and the fulcrum is to the distance between 
the power and the fulcrum so is the power to the weight. 

To Find the Power of Pulleys or Set of Blocks. — Rule. — 
As one is to twice the number of movable pulleys so is the 
power to the weight. 

Size of Gutters and Down-spouts or Conductor-pipes. — 
A rule of the American Bridge Company requires the following 
sizes for gutters and conductor-pipes: 

Size of Roof. Gutter. Conductor. 

Up to 50 feet 6 inches 4 inches every 40 feet 

50 " 70 " 7 " 5 " " 40 " 

70 " 100 " 8 " 5 " " 40 " 

Paste for Paper to Iron. For pasting paper to iron or 
steel mix dextrine with water and boil it down until it assumes 
about the consistency of very thin glue; it will not hold on greasy 
or oily substances. 

Ink for Zinc. — An ink which can be used with a drawing-pen 
on zinc and which is acid-proof is made of 1 dram verdigris, 
1 dram sal-ammoniac powder, and J dram lampblack, mixed 
with 10 drams of water. 

Oil for Oil-stones. — A good oil for oil-stones is made by 
mixing equal parts of sperm- and carbon-oil (coal-oil). 

Nailing in Hardwoods. — When working in hardwoods 
bore a hole in the end of the hammer-handle and fill with soap 
or beeswax. When a nail is to be driven place the point of 
it in the beeswax or soap and it will drive much easier. 

Penny as Applied to Nails. — The term " penny " is derived 
from pound. It originally meant so many pounds to the thou- 
sand. Threepenny nails would mean three pounds to the 
thousand nails; eightpenny nails, eight pounds to the thousand 
nails, etc. 

To Mark Tools, etc. — Take 7 ounces of nitric acid and 1 
ounce of muriatic acid; mix, and shake together, then cover 
the tool where it is desired to mark with beeswax, and take a 
needle or other sharp instrument and scratch the name plainly 
in the beeswax; then apply the acid with a feather, filling up 
the scratch in the wax ; let it remain for about five minutes, then 
wash off with water and rub with oil. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 457 

Paste or Putty for Castings. — Eighty parts of sifted 
cast-iron turnings, two parts of powdered sal-ammoniac, and 
one part sulphur, made into a thick paste with water and 
mixed fresh for use, makes a good cement for stopping holes in 
castings. 

Fine Lubricating-oil. — Put pure olive-oil into a clear glass 
bottle with strips of sheet lead and expose it to the sun for two 
or three weeks; then pour off the clear oil, and the result is a 
lubricant which will neither gum nor corrode. It is used for 
watches and fine machinery of all kinds. 

To Remove Paint or Grease from the Hands. — Paint or 
grease is most readily removed from the hands by taking a 
handful of fine sawdust, saturating it thoroughly with kerosene, 
and scrubbing them in it, then rubbing them dry in plenty of 
dry sawdust. 

To Keep Water in Paint-troughs from Freezing. — The 
water in brush-troughs can be kept from freezing in cold weather 
by the addition of salt or a little glycerine. Neither will hurt 
the brushes. 

How to Clean Tracings. — Tracings that are badly soiled 
with grease spots or other dirt may be nicely cleaned with kero- 
sene. Tack the tracing to a board and apply the kerosene 
gently but liberally to the surface, allowing it to soak a short 
time, and then drying off with a clean rag. Turn the tracing 
over and treat the other side in the same manner. Place in a 
warm place to dry. Naphtha or benzine will also answer the 
same purpose. 

Height of Privy-seats. — Privy-seats should be set about 
15 inches in height. 

Height of Wash-tubs. — Wash-tubs are usually set about 
31 inches from the floor to the top of the tub. 

Height of Wash-stands. — Wash-stands are usually set 2 
feet 6 inches from the floor. 

Height of Horse Troughs. — Horse or cattle water-troughs 
should be set about 26 inches from the floor or ground to the top 
of the trough. 

Height of Sinks. — Sinks are usually set about 2 feet 6 inches 
from the floor to the top of the sink. 

Dimensions of Bath Tubs. — The dimensions of bath tubs 
vary according to the style and manufacture, about as follows: 



458 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

In width over all, they run from 25 to 35 inches. 

In height, including legs, they run from 22 to 25 inches. 

In depth inside, they run from 16 to 19 inches. 

In length, they are made 4 feet, 4 feet 6 inches, 5 feet, 

5 feet 6 inches and 6 feet, over all, and some makes will 

run 2 inches longer than the above sizes. 

Life of Iron Pipe. — The life of wrought iron pipe was 
recently discussed in Building News. It seems that in 1890 
several cast iron conduits at Berlin, from 3.5 to 10 cm. in diam- 
eter, were ruptured, which led the authorities to replace the cast 
iron pipes with those of wrought iron, covered with the following 
composition for protection: Sixty-five kg. (143 pounds) of tar, 
3 kg. of rosin (6.6 pounds), 15 liters (4 gallons, or 0.53 cubic feet) 
of sand, 7 liters (1.85 gallons) of loamy clay and 4 liters (1 gallon) 
of powdered lime. A coating of this mixture, 3 or 4 mm. thick 
(i to ^2 inch), was applied. In more than a dozen years of 
service these pipes have been preserved from rust and have 
undergone no change. 

Solder. — The essentials of a good solder are that it shall 
have an affinity for the metals to be united, should melt at a 
considerably lower temperature, should be strong, tough, uni- 
form in composition, and not easily oxidized. 

Before selecting a solder be sure to thoroughly acquaint your- 
self with the requirements and choose a solder suited for the 
purpose. A solder with a low melting point, though the initial 
cost be a trifle more, will give better satisfaction than the solder 
with a high melting point, and if properly handled will be cheaper 
in the end. A solder with a low point of fusion saves reheating 
of irons and enables the workmen to run a greater quantity of 
metal before the copper chills, flows free, thus causing a greater 
space to be covered than with an equal bulk of a coarser grade. 
A wiping solder should not have too low a melting point, but 
should undergo a prolonged pasty stage on cooling. It is upon 
this quality that the workman depends for success in wiping a 
joint. 

To Make Wiping Solder. — Wiping solder is made by 
melting together three parts lead and two parts tin, but this will 
vary according to the quality of the lead and tin. After it is 
melted it can be tempered by adding lead or tin. If after being 
melted the mixture cools with a sort of mottled appearance, it is 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 459 

about right for use; if very bright it has too much tin; if very- 
dull it has too much lead. 

To Remelt and Refine Old Solder. — Place the solder in 
a pot, melt and add a little new tin, try the solder at intervals by 
soldering a seam; in this way the tin can be added in small 
quantities until the solder works as desired. A little sulphur 
helps with the operation. 

Old wipe joints can be remelted and tin added in this manner 
until the metal is the right fineness for use again. 

Solder for Soldering Aluminum. — Aluminum, 30 per 
cent; tin, 38 per cent; zinc, 40 per cent; paraffine, t wax, or fat, 
2 per cent. This solder may be used without a flux. 

Zinc, 30 per cent; bismuth, 5 per cent; tin, 65 per cent; with 
zinc chloride as a flux. 

Aluminum, 8 to 20 per cent; zinc, 80 to 92 per cent. Melt the 
aluminum first, then add zinc gradually; finally add a little fat. 

For a flux use 3 parts copaiba balsam, 1 part Venice turpen- 
tine, and a few drops of lemon juice. 

Universal Soldering Fluid. — A soldering fluid which will 
not rust or corrode the soldered parts is made by dissolving as 
much zinc in muriatic acid as the acid will take up and then 
adding water, glycerine and alcohol. 

To one part glycerine add one part alcohol and one part of 
water; then add two parts of acid with the zinc dissolved. 

Improved Acid — Zinc Soldering Flux. — To make 1 gallon 
of this soldering fluid take 3 quarts of common muriatic acid and 
allow it to dissolve as much zinc as it will take up. This method, 
of course, is the usual one followed in the manufacture of ordinary 
soldering acid. The acid, as is well known, must be placed in 
an earthenware or glass vessel. The zinc may be sheet clippings 
or common plate spelter broken into small pieces. Place the 
acid in the vessel and add the zinc in small portions so as to 
prevent the whole from boiling over. When all the zinc has been 
added and the action has stopped, it indicates that enough has 
been taken up. Care must be taken, however, to see that there 
is a little zinc left in the bottom, as otherwise the acid will be in 
excess. The idea is to have the acid take up as much zinc as it 
will. 

After this has been done there will remain some residue in the 
form of a black precipitate. This is the lead which all zinc con- 
tains and which is not dissolved by the muriatic acid. This lead 



460 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

may be removed by filtering through a funnel in the bottom of 
which there is a little absorbent cotton, or the solution may be 
allowed to remain over night until the lead has settled and the 
clear solution can then be poured off. This lead precipitate is 
not particularly injurious to the soldering fluid, but it is better 
to get rid of it so that a good, clear solution may be obtained. 

Now dissolve 6 ounces of sal-ammoniac in a pint of warm water. 
In another pint dissolve 4 ounces of chloride of tin. The chloride 
of tin solution will usually be cloudy, but this will not matter. 
Now mix the three solutions together. The solution will be 
slightly cloudy when the three have been mixed, and the addition 
of a few drops of muriatic acid will render it perfectly clear. Do 
not add any more acid than is necessary to do this, as the solution 
would then contain too much of this ingredient and the results 
would be injurious. 

This soldering acid is used in the same manner as any solution 
of this kind, but it will be found that it will not spatter when the 
iron is applied to it. It has also been found that a poorer grade 
of solder may be used with it than with the usual soldering acid. 

Soldering Fluids. — 1. Muriatic acid with zinc dissolved in 
it until it will take no more. 

2. Dissolve zinc in hydrochloric acid until the acid will take 
no more; then dilute with water. 

3. Take one ounce of grain alcohol, 1 ounce glycerine, h ounce 
chloride of zinc and mix together. This flux will not stain or 
corrode the work. 

Linseed Oil as a Flux. — Linseed oil can be used as a flux 
for roof work. The oil is not quite as fast as rosin or acid, but 
it leaves nothing objectionable to be dealt with afterwards. 
Acid runs into the seams and causes corrosion, while rosin is 
extremely hard to remove. 

Flux for Tinware. — Mix together one dram each of borax, 
copperas, and yellow prussiate of potash, h dram sal-ammoniac 
and 3^ ounces of muriatic acid. 

Powder the chemicals and let all cut the zinc ; then add three 
times as much water. 

Flux for Copper and Bronze. — Mix pulverized cryolite and 
a solution of phosphoric acid, in spirits of wine. 

Soldering Cast Iron. — The surfaces to be united should be 
made bright and clean; they should then be tinned separately 
and sweated together. The pieces should be kept hot while 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 461 

being sweated together and pressed together closely while cooling. 
It is very difficult to solder some of the finer grained cast irons. 

To clean the iron before soldering file it until it becomes bright, 
then brush it with a wire brush until the iron becomes yellow; 
this will facilitate the soldering. 

Flux for Brazing Steel. — Take 1 part by weight of borax, 
melt in a ladle and after it cools reduce to a powder; then add 3 
parts by weight of boracic acid and mix to a paste with water. 

How to Make Soldering Paste. — Soldering paste, says the 
" Brass World/' has now come into extensive use in electrical work 
as a flux for soldering. This has been brought about by the 
requirements of the electrical trade that in certain forms of solder- 
ing no acid shall be used. For soldering copper wires for elec- 
trical conductors, soldering paste is almost exclusively used. It 
has also entered other fields of soldering, particularly in instances 
where spattering and corrosion are objectionable. 

Soldering paste which is now used in the electrical trades con- 
sists of a mixture of a grease and chloride of zinc. The grease 
which is commonly used is a petroleum residue, such as vaseline 
or petrolatum. Such a material is about right in consistency. 
The proportions which are used are as follows: 

Petrolatum 1 lb. 

Saturated solution chloride of zinc 1 oz. (fluid). 

The use of petrolatum instead of vaseline is recommended. 
While they are identical in composition, the name "vaseline" is 
registered as a trademark and commands a higher price on this 
account. Petrolatum is much cheaper. 

The chloride of zinc solution is made by dissolving as much 
zinc in strong muriatic acid as it will take up. An excess of zinc 
should be present and all the acid neutralized. This will form 
a thick, oily solution. The petrolatum and chloride of zinc are 
mixed and thoroughly incorporated by means of a mortar and 
pestle or by vigorous stirring. 

The advantage of this soldering paste lies in the fact that it 
does not spatter and is not corrosive. It will be found excellent 
and is now extensively used. 

To Keep Hot Lead from Sticking. — Prepare a mixture of 
1 qt. powdered charcoal, h pt. salt, 1 gill yellow prussiate of 
potash and a lump of cyanide of potassium the size of a walnut. 
Apply this to the surface of the pot or to tools to be heated in the 
molten metal. 



462 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Wood Rims on Sinks and Bath Tubs. — Wood rims should 
never be used on sinks or bath tubs, as they are only a breeder of 
dirt and disease; but if for any reason they are used they should 
be bedded in a layer of soft putty, so as to completely stop the 
crack between the rim and the fixture and prevent the accumula- 
tion of dirt under the rim. 

To Estimate the Horse Power of a Gas Engine. — The 
horse power of a high grade four-cycle gas engine may be closely 
estimated by the following rule. 

Each square inch of the area of the piston head will give about 
Js of a horse power. This rule applies only when the engine is in 
perfect condition, igniting correctly, etc., running at about 250 
revolutions per minute. 

Horse Power of Windmill. — To calculate the horse power of 
a windmill approximately, multiply the area of the slats in the 
plane of revolution by the cube of the velocity of the wind in 
feet per second, and divide the product by 4,000,000. 

Horse Power of Steam Engine. — To find the horse power of 
a steam engine, multiply the square of the diameter of the cylinder 
in inches, by 0.7854, and this product by the mean engine pres- 
sure, and the last product by the piston travel in feet per min- 
ute. Divide the last product by 33,000 for the indicated horse 
power. In the absence of any logarithmic formula or expansion 
table, multiply the boiler pressure for § cut off by 0.91 ; for + cut 
off by 0.85, for f cut off by 0.75; for T 3 o cut off by 0.68. This 
will give the mean engine pressure per square inch near enough 
for ordinary practice, for steam pressures between 60 and 100 
pounds. 

Always remember that the piston travel is twice the stroke 
multiplied by the number of revolutions per minute. 

Cements for Steam and Water Joints. — 1. Black oxide of 
manganese mixed with sufficient raw linseed oil to bring it to a 
thick paste. Remove pressure from pipe and keep warm enough 
to absorb the oil while the cement is being applied to the joint 
or leak. 

2. With boiled linseed oil mix together to the consistency of 
putty the following ingredients: Ground litharge, 5 lbs.; plas- 
ter of paris, 2 lbs.; yellow ochre, I lb.; red lead, 1 lb. If a 
binder is desired, mix in a little hemp cut to i-inch lengths. 

3. White lead, 10 parts; black oxide of manganese, 3 parts; 
litharge, 1 part. Mix with boiled linseed oil. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 463 

Steam Fitters' Cement. — The following formula for steam 
fitters' cement was presented by S. S. Sadtler in a paper read 
recently before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia. The body 
of the cement consists of either red or white lead. The red lead is 
often diluted with an equal bulk of silica or other inert substances 
so as to make it less powdery. The best way that I have found 
to do this, however, is to add rubber or gutta-percha to the oil as 
follows : Linseed oil, 6 parts by weight ; rubber or gutta-percha, 
1 part by weight. The rubber or gutta-percha is dissolved in 
sufficient carbon disulphide to give it the consistency of molas- 
ses, mixed with the oil, and left exposed to the air for about 24 
hours. The red lead is then mixed to a putty. Oxide of iron 
makes a less brittle cement than red lead. Probably fish oils 
and red lead would make good cements of the class for joining 
pipes, as the fish oils are not such strong drying oils as linseed, 
and their use might be a case of permissible substitution rather 
than adulteration. 

Cement or Putty for Making Waste Connections to 
Marble. — When making a waste connection to a marble slab, as 
in shower baths, use a cement or putty made of equal parts of 
white lead and whiting. 

Cement for Repairing Wash Trays, etc. — A very strong 
cement, which sets very hard, and which is used in repairing 
wash trays, etc., is made by mixing litharge and glycerine 
together. 

Cement for Attaching Metal Letters to Glass. — Use 30 
parts copal varnish, 10 parts spirits of turpentine, 10 parts glue 
dissolved in a little warm water, and 20 parts pulverized slaked 
lime. 

Cement for Joints. — Take paris white, ground, 4 pounds; 
litharge, ground, 10 pounds; yellow ochre, fine, \ pound; \ ounce 
hemp, cut short; mix well together with linseed oil to a stiff 
putty. This cement is good for joints on steam and water pipes, 
and will set under water. 

Aquarium Cement. — (1) Whiting, 6 parts; plaster of paris, 
3 parts; white sand, 3 parts; litharge, 3 parts; powdered resin, 
1 part. Mix thoroughly, and make into a putty with the best 
coach varnish. Let the glass stand about a week before putting 
in water. 

(2) Linseed oil, 3 ounces; tar, 4 ounces; resin, 1 pound; melt 
together over a gentle fire. If too much oil is used the cement 



464 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

will be too thin and run. It is best to try a little on a piece of 
glass, which should be put under water. If too thin let it simmer 
awhile or add a little more resin. When used, the glass of the 
aquarium should be slightly warmed. 

Gas Fitters' Cement. — Melt together 4-|- parts resin (by 
weight), 1 part beeswax; then stir in 3 parts Venetian red and 
pour into moulds made of oiled paper or iron. 

What a Leak in a Water Pipe Amounts to. — Water drop- 
ping at the rate of 35 drops per minute amounts to -| pt. per hour, 
or 1J gal. every 24 hours. 

Cleaning a Water-Back. — In some instances where the 
water used contains much lime the water-back of a stove or 
heater will become clogged with a sediment of calcium car- 
bonate. 

This can be removed with a solution of muriatic acid, which 
should be poured into the water-back and allowed to stand for a 
couple of hours ; the solution should then be poured out and the 
water-back washed out with clean water. 

To Tin a Soldering Iron. — Dress the iron down by filing; 
then take a soft clay brick and rub one side with the iron until 
there is a small depression or hollow; put a few small pieces of 
solder and resin in the hollow ; then heat the iron to a working 
heat and rub it into the solder. If the solder does not stick 
readily use a solution of sal-ammoniac water. 

To Prevent Iron from Rusting. — Dip the metal for a few 
moments in a solution of blue vitriol, and then in a solution of 
hyposulphite of soda, acidulated with chlorhydric acid. This 
will give a blue-black color to the metal. 

To Locate Crooked Threads. — If, when a piece of pipe is 
screwed into a fitting, it is out of line, it is a very simple matter 
to determine, by turning the pipe a half-turn, whether the 
crooked thread is in the fitting or in the pipe. If the pipe still 
maintains its crooked position, then the crooked thread is in the 
fitting; but if the pipe turns to a different slant as it is turned 
around, then the crooked thread is on the pipe. 

Crooked threads on pipe are usually threads that are cut by 
dies in stocks, and are caused by the fact that the distance 
between the die and the bushing is too short. In cases where the 
bushing is badly worn, the die is just as apt to cut a crooked 
thread as a straight one, as the bushing does not keep the die at 
right angles to the pipe. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 465 

Height to which a Siphon will Lift Water. — The height 
of water which atmospheric pressure at sea level will sustain is 
about 33.8 feet. This is theoretical and would only occur if 
there was a perfect vacuum above the water column. 

When the flow of water takes place the friction of the pipes 
offers resistance, so all things taken into consideration, the lifting 
power of a siphon is from 25 to 28 feet. 

Flow of Water from Elevated Tanks. — If an elevated 
tank has two outlets, the pipes being the same size, but one pipe 
being considerably longer than the other, the long pipe will 
discharge the most water, as the weight of water in the longer 
pipe has a tendency to create a vacuum in the pipe and thus 
causes a greater suction from the tank. 

To Clean Zinc. — To clean tarnished zinc apply with a rag a 
mixture of one part sulphuric acid with twelve parts of water. 
Rinse the zinc with clean water. 

To Prevent Clay, etc., from Sticking to the Shovel. — 
When shoveling sticky clay or mud, if several holes are drilled 
through the blade of the shovel they will let the air in and prevent 
the clay or mud from sticking, caused by the suction against the 
blade of the shovel. 

Height to which Water Can Be Lifted by Suction. — A 
pump will lift water by suction to the same height it can be lifted 
with a siphon, 25 to 28 feet, and no more, as they both work on 
the same principle, that is, the pressure exerted by the atmos- 
phere. 

Care of Fixtures in Vacant Houses. — When a house is to 
stand vacant during the winter months, and there may be any 
danger of the water seal in the traps of the fixtures freezing and 
breaking the fixture, the water should all be drawn off and the 
seal made with oil, as this will not freeze and will keep the trap 
sealed so that no sewer gas can enter the house. 

Plumbers' Soil. — Plumbers' soil which is used for coating 
pipe, etc., when soldering or making a "wipe" joint is made of 
glue and lampblack ; the glue should be made very thin with water, 
and the lamp black added, the mixture being allowed to simmer 
for about 15 minutes until it is of about the consistency of paint. 
If it rubs off easily add more glue, but if it comes off in flakes it 
has too much glue. 

Finishing Asbestos Covering. — When putting plastic asbes- 
tos covering on boilers, etc., after the body of asbestos is put 



466 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

on, cover with a skim coat mixed with about one-half Portland 
cement; this will give a hard, smooth finish. 

To Cast a Lead Plumb Bob. — Take a large egg and cut a 
small hole in the end of the shell, where the eye of the bob will 
be; then cut another hole in the side of the shell to be used to 
pour in the molten metal. The contents of the shell can now be 
drawn out, and the shell should be laid away until perfectly dry. 
When dry put the shell in a small box and completely surround 
and cover it with clay or sand, putting the wire eye in place as 
the shell is covered, so that the clay will hold the eye in position. 
The hole in the side of the shell should be at the top and the clay 
worked up around it so as to form a sort of funnel in which to 
pour the hot lead. Pour the shell full, and when cold break away 
the clay and shell. 

Collecting Spilled Mercury. — Mercury spilled on the 
floor or work bench is very hard to collect, as it separates into 
small globules which roll away at the slightest touch. A simple 
method to assist in the collecting of the mercury is to make a wet 
ring around the mercury and then gather it up on a card, scoop 
or in an envelope. The mercury will not readily roll across the 
wet ring. 

To Blacken Brass. — 1. Nitrate of silver, 120 grains; water, 
5 ounces. 

2. Nitrate of copper, 120 grains; water, 5 ounces. 

Mix in equal quantities sufficient of the above to cover the 
metal to be blackened. Dip it in the solution, then heat in an 
oven until black as desired. The brass must be free from all 
grease before dipping. It can be cleaned of all grease by dipping 
it into hot soda water. 

Thawing frozen Pipes with Lime. — Pack unslaked lime 
around the pipe, wrap with old rags or carpet and pour water 
over the lime; the heat generated by the slaking of the lime will 
thaw the pipe. 

White Metal. — The formula for white metal is tin, 42 parts ; 
lead, 40 parts; antimony, 20 parts, and cupromanganese, 2 parts. 
The metals should be melted rapidly to prevent loss and stirred 
constantly, then covered with a layer of charcoal to prevent 
oxidation. 

To Keep Machinery from Rusting. — Take one ounce of 
camphor, dissolve it in one pound of melted lard; take off the 
scum, and mix in it as much fine, black lead as will give it an iron 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 467 

color. Clean the machinery and coat it with this paste. After 
standing for about twenty-four hours, clean it off with a soft 
cloth. It will keep clean without rusting for several months. 

Length of Service of Electric Lamps. — Electric lamps 
should not be burned more than 800 hours; while they will often 
last longer than this length of time, they will grow dim, not giving 
as much light as they should but at the same time using as much 
electric current as a good lamp. 

To Cut a Glass Gauge Tube. — Score it on one side with the 
corner of a file; then hold in both hands with the thumb back of 
the mark and using the thumbs as fulcrums, break the tube, 
which will break at the point cut with the file. 

To Cut a Glass Jar or Bottle. — (1) Fill the jar or bottle 
with lard oil to the point where it is desired to cut it, then heat 
a piece of iron to a high temperature and dip in the oil. This 
will start the oil boiling and the sudden change of temperature 
will usually cause the glass to break evenly all around at the 
surface of the oil. 

(2) Turn an eye, large enough to take the size of the bottles 
you wish to break, on one end of a ^-in. iron rod and leave a 
handle about 2\ ft. long. Put the tool in the fire and heat to a 
shade over red, says a correspondent of the " Blacksmith and 
Wheelwright." Put the hot eye of the tool over the bottle to the 
point where you wish it cut; turn the bottle around a few times, 
then take it out of the eye and dip it in cold water, and the cut 
will be just where you intended. 

To Freeze a Water Pipe. — Take a box and cut a slot in 
each end so the box can be brought up under the pipe with the 
pipe in the two slots. Fill the box with chipped ice and salt, or 
pour ammonia over the ice. 

To Make a Rust Joint. — Mix 10 parts of iron filings and 3 
parts of chloride of lime to a paste with water. Apply to the 
joint and clamp up; it will be solid in twelve hours. 

To Make a Rust Joint (for quick setting). — Sal-ammoniac 
powdered, 1 lb. ; flower of sulphur, 2 lbs. ; iron borings, 80 lbs. ; 
mix to a paste with wa'ter. 

To Make a Rust Joint (for slow setting). — Sal-ammoniac, 
2 lbs. ; sulphur, 1 lb. ; iron borings, 200 lbs. ; this makes the strongest 
joint if time can be given for it to harden. 

To Remove Rust from Steel. — Brush the rusted steel with 
a paste composed of % oz. cyanide potassium, \ oz. castile soap, 



468 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

1 oz. whiting and enough water to form a paste. Then wash the 
steel in a solution of \ oz. cyanite of potassium in 2 oz. water. 

A Solvent for Rust. — It is often very difficult and some- 
times impossible to remove rust from articles made of iron. 
Those which are most thickly coated are most easily cleaned 
by being immersed in a solution, nearly saturated, of chloride of 
tin. The length of time they remain in this bath is determined 
by the thickness of the coating of rust. Generally twelve to 
twenty-four hours is long enough. The solution ought not to 
contain a great excess of acid, if the iron itself be not attacked. 
On taking them from the bath the articles are rinsed, first in 
water, then in ammonia, and quickly dried. The iron, when 
thus treated, has the appearance of dull silver. A simple polish- 
ing gives it its normal appearance. 

To Brighten Tarnished Brass and Copper. — Clean the 
metal by warming it and dipping it in water charged with wash- 
ing soda; then dip it in clear water to remove the grease. Next 
dip it into a bath of one part, by measure, of sulphuric acid, one 
part sal-ammoniac, two parts nitric acid, and four parts water. 

Dip for a moment, then dip in clear water and dry in warm 
sawdust. 

Oxalic acid dissolved in soft water in proportion of one-half 
ounce acid to a pint of water is also a good wash for brightening 
brass work. 

Substitute for Fire Clay. — A good substitute for fire clay 
for repairing fireplaces, etc., is common clay mixed with water to 
which a little salt has been added. 

Whitewash. — Common whitewash is made by slaking fresh 
lime and adding enough water to make a thin paste; by using 

2 pounds of sulphate of zinc and 1 pound of salt to each half 
bushel of lime the whitewash will be much harder and not crack. 
A half pint of linseed oil to each gallon of whitewash will make 
it more durable for outside work. To color, add to each bushel 
of lime 4 to 6 pounds of ochre for cream color, 6 to 8 pounds 
amber, 2 pounds Indian red, and 2 pounds of lampblack for 
fawn color; 6 to 8 pounds raw umber and 3 or 4 pounds lamp- 
black for buff or stone color. 

To Make Iron Take a Bright Polish like Steel. — Pulverize 
and dissolve the following articles in 1 qt. hot water; blue vitriol, 
1 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; prussiate of potash, 1 oz.; charcoal, 1 oz.; 
salt, \ pt-; then add 1 gal. linseed oil; mix well; bring your iron 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 469 

or steel to the proper heat and cool in the solution. It is said 
the manufacturers of the Judson governor paid $100 for this 
receipt, the object being to case-harden iron, so that it would 
take a bright polish like steel. 

To Make Lead Joints under Water. — Use lead wool which 
consists of small fibers of lead, which when calked forms a solid 
joint. 

To Clean Porcelain Fixtures. — To clean porcelain fixtures 
use hot water and a rag saturated with gasoline or coal oil; or 
-smear a little vaseline on the dirtiest places and scour with a rag 
and hot water. 

To Find the Diameter of Pump Cylinder. — To find the 
diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity of water 
per minute, divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the 
square root, and the product will be the diameter in inches of a 
pump cylinder required to do the work at a piston travel of 100 
feet per minute. 

Insulating Paste. — Take linseed oil, 2 parts; cottonseed 
oil, 1 part; heavy petroleum, 2 parts; light coal tar, 2 parts; 
Venice turpentine, J part; spirits of turpentine, 1 part; gutta- 
percha, I part; sulphur, 2 parts; heat the oils separately to about 
300° F. ; cool to 240 degrees, and mix in the other materials, the 
sulphur last. After the materials have been mixed together 
heat to 300° F. for about an hour or until the mixture becomes 
pasty, and on cooling is soft and elastic. 

To Extinguish Chimney Fires. — A burning chimney, when 
the soot has been lighted from the fire in the grate, can be extin- 
guished by shutting all the doors and windows of the room, to 
prevent a current of air up the chimney; then, by throwing a few 
handfuls of salt on the fire, the fire in the chimney will be extin- 
guished. The salt in burning produces muriatic acid gas which 
extinguishes the fire. 

To Loosen Clinkers. — Put oyster shells, one at a time, in 
the fire when the fire is burning brightly, and the clinkers will 
loosen from the sides of the fire bricks. 

How to Use the Hack-saw. — Strain the blade well in the 
frame and run slowly, not to exceed fifty strokes per minute. 
Bear hard on the forward stroke so that the blade will not slip, 
and ease up on the backward or return stroke. Do not bend the 
frame sidewise. When putting the blade in the frame see that 
the rake of the teeth is forward. 



470 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

To Use the Power Hack-saw. — Strain the blade well in 
the frame, with the rake of the teeth forward. See that the 
guide is properly adjusted, and run slowly, not to exceed fifty 
strokes per minute. Always start the saw on the backward 
stroke as the teeth are not so liable to strip or the saw break as 
when started on the forward stroke. 

Soldering a Ball Water Float. — When soldering a leak 
in a ball water float, partly immerse it in cold water to take up 
the heat from the soldering iron; otherwise the heat may expand 
the air in the ball and cause another leak. 

Increasing the Heating Power of Coal. — Coal burns 
much better if it is wet when put on the fire, and still better 
results are obtained if a couple of handfuls of salt has been 
dissolved in each bucket of water used to wet the coal. 

The coal can be wet with a salt solution once or twice a week, 
and the solution will dry on the coal, leaving a deposit of salt 
on the surface of the coal, which will make it burn better and 
hotter. 

To Fasten Tools in their Handles. — To fasten steel tools 
in their handles, put some powdered rosin and rotten stone in 
the hole of the handle. Heat the tang of the tool hot enough to 
melt the rosin and push it firmly down into the handle; when it is 
cold it will be firmly set. 

To Fix Pencil Marks so they will not Rub out — Take 
well skimmed milk and dilute with an equal bulk of water. Wash 
the pencil marks (whether writing or drawing) with this liquid, 
using a soft camel-hair brush, and avoid any rubbing. Place on 
a flat board to dry. 

Stove Cleaning Liquid. — An excellent stove cleaner and 
polish is made by dissolving 2 ounces of beeswax in 1 quart of 
gasoline and then add \ pint of turpentine. Shake well before 
using, and never use near a light or fire. 

To Color Electric Lamps. — To color electric lamps for 
decorative purposes, take a little white shellac and cut it with 
alcohol; dip the lamp in this mixture and let dry, when it pro- 
duces a good imitation of frosted or ground glass. 

For coloring take a little egg dye of the color desired and dis- 
solve it in a little alcohol and color the shellac with this coloring. 
When desired the lamps can be cleaned with alcohol. Another 
method is to dip the lamps in, or paint them with a solution of 
collodion, in which an aniline dye of the desired color has been 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 471 

dissolved. These dyes can be obtained at any drug store, and 
are about the same as the egg dyes. 

When dipping the lamps be careful not to wet the base of the 
lamp. 

Toilet Paper Reel. — The reel for toilet paper in public 
lavatories should be such that the roll of paper cannot be taken 
off except by unrolling it. 

To Keep Plaster of Paris from Setting Quickly. — To 
retard the setting of plaster of paris, mix with diluted vinegar. 
Mixed with pure vinegar it will not set for about six hours. For 
ordinary use as filling cracks, etc., mix with a solution of 3 parts 
water and 1 part vinegar. 

To Take Rust Spots Off Marble. — To remove rust 
spots from marble, apply a mixture of 1 part nitric acid and 
25 parts water, then rinse off with 3 parts water and 1 part 
ammonia. 

Etching on Metals. — Etching on metals can be done with 
a rubber stamp as follows: With a stamp of the desired design 
or words use asphaltum varnish in place of ink and stamp the 
design on the metal. When the varnish has dried apply acids 
as follows, which will eat into the metal at the exposed places 
leaving the design in relief. 

Etching. — The following acids for etching will give good 
results. Iron and Soft Steel. — Nitric acid, 1 part ; water, 4 parts. 
Hard Steel. — Nitric acid, 2 parts ; acetic acid, 1 part. 
Deep Etching. — Hydrochloric acid, 10 parts; chlorate of 
potash, 2 parts ; water, 88 parts. 

Etching Bronze. — Nitric acid, 100 parts; muriatic acid, 5 
parts. 

Brass. — Nitric acid, 16 parts; water, 160 parts. Dissolve 
6 parts potassium chlorate in 100 parts of water, then mix the 
two solutions and apply. 

Hammering in Boilers, Pipes, etc. — Hammering or 
snapping in a range boiler or hot water pipes is caused from the 
sagging of the pipes causing traps in the system or from stoppage 
in the water-back. Hammering in pipes when water is being 
drawn may be caused by a loose part of one of the faucets or 
cocks, or by a large leather washer, the leather overhanging the 
seat, and vibrating, thus causing the noise. In a heating system 
it may be caused by air at some point in the pipe and an air valve 
placed at this point will remedy the trouble. 



472 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

To Prevent Siphonage of Hot Water Boiler. — To prevent 
siphonage of the hot water boiler and water-back, drill a small 
hole in the cold water supply pipe inside the boiler at a point just 
above the line of the water-back. When the water is then drawn 
down to this point it will take air and stop the siphonage. 

Location of Basin Cocks. — On wash basins, bath tubs, etc., 
the hot water cock should be placed on the left hand side, and 
the cold water on the right. 

Connecting up Water-Backs. — Never connect a water- 
back directly to the city supply; always take the supply for the 
water-back from the bottom of the boiler. 

Bronzing Liquid. — A liquid for mixing bronze for use on 
heating pipes, etc., is made by mixing one part of clear baking 
varnish with from two to three parts of turpentine. 

Bronzing Pipes, Radiators, etc. — Size the surface to be 
bronzed with a good slow drying baking varnish cut with about 
one-half turpentine, after the sizing becomes dry enough to be 
"tacky" rub on the bronze with a soft rag or brush. 

This will give a much brighter finish than any of the liquid 
paints. Aluminum bronze is put on the same way. 

To Build up Threads of Fittings. — Oftentimes it is found 
that the threads of brass fittings are cut a little large for the pipe 
they are to be put on and it is hard to get the fitting tight. To 
remedy this cover the thread with acid or powdered paraffme 
and dip the exposed threads in the soldering pot, or with the iron 
give the threads a coat of solder. By this method the threads 
can be built up enough to take up considerable "play." 

Lead Wool. — Lead wool is a material recently invented for 
the joints of gas and water mains. It consists of fine threads 
cut from pure lead, and is sold in strands about three feet long. 
Opium is put in the joint in the usual manner and then instead 
of pouring in hot lead the wool is calked in without heating. 
Each turn of the wool around the pipe should be well calked 
before another one is inserted. 

To Clean the Hands of Tar. — Rub the hands with the 
outside of fresh orange or lemon peel, and wipe dry. The volatile 
oil in the peel dissolves the tar so it can be wiped off. 

To Clean Gas Fixtures. — Gas fixtures that have become 
clogged with dirt can be cleaned by attaching the fixtures to a 
steam pipe and letting the steam go through the pipe under 
considerable pressure. This will take out all the dirt. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS 473 

Making Fittings. — To make a reducing fitting, screw a 
coupling on to a nipple and cut a thread on the outside of the 
coupling. The same practice can be done with an elbow or tee 
by cutting a thread on the outside. 

To Use Hot Water Radiators for Steam. — When it is 
desired to use hot water radiators for steam, all that is necessary 
is to change the location of the air valve to a point about one- 
third the height of the radiator. The only thing that may cause 
trouble is that it is sometimes difficult to get the air out of a hot 
water radiator when it is being used for steam. 

Painting Galvanized Iron with Aluminum. — After the 
metal has stood to the weather for several weeks, give two coats 
of red lead and linseed oil, after which give a coat of aluminum 
bronze, which will give a silver finish. Or if the metal is to be 
painted immediately after being put in place, wash it with one of 
the washes given under " Making Paint Adhere to Galvanized 
Iron." 

Making Paint Adhere to Galvanized Iron. — (1) Apply 
a solution of ammonia water, using a whitewash brush to put it 
on with. Allow this to dry before applying the paint, and there 
will be no difficulty about the paint sticking to the iron. 

(2) Wash the surface with a delicate mixture of muriatic acid, 
vinegar and water. Let it stand for 24 hours and then wash 
with cold water. It is then ready for paint. 

(3) Dissolve 2 ounces of copper chloride, 2 ounces of copper 
nitrate, 2 ounces sal-ammoniac, in one gallon of clear soft water, 
and when the solution is complete add 2 ounces of crude hydro- 
chloric acid, and apply with a brush. 

The acid solutions should be prepared in a glass or earthenware 
vessel, and in applying the solution should not be allowed to get 
into the joints where it will come in contact with the edge of the 
iron which is not plated and cause rust. 

To Fasten Linoleum to Cement Floors. — To make lino- 
leum adhere to a cement floor use a cement made by adding 
sifted wood ashes to glue, making a mixture of about the con- 
sistency of varnish; apply to the lower side of the linoleum and 
press hard against the floor. 

To Clean Grease out of Waste Pipes. — When the waste 
pipe from sinks, etc., becomes stopped up with grease, run sal- 
soda or lye into the pipe which will eat away the grease so it will 
wash out. 



474 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

To Polish Lead Pipes. — To polish old lead pipe, rub it with 
fine sand paper which will give it a bright finish. The sand paper 
should be rubbed lengthwise of the pipe. Or rubbing the pipe 
with a piece of old carpet will give the pipe a dull finish. After 
polishing, the pipe should be given a coat of shellac. 

Heating Value of Crude Oil. — Tests have been made in 
California to determine the relative heating value of crude oil 
and local coal. It was found that one net ton of coal was equiva- 
lent to 718 pounds, or 94.5 gallons of oil. 

Lead against Oak Wood. — Do not use lead in contact with 
oak wood, unless the oak is perfectly dry. The gallic or acetic 
acid in the wood will turn the lead into acetate of lead or 
ceruse. 

To Install a Hot Water Boiler below the Water-back. — 
When it is necessary to place the hot water boiler below the range 
or water-back, carry the flow pipe vertical as high as convenient 
to form a loop and insure circulation. A good rule is: Carry the 
flow vertical as many feet as it is desired to drop below the water- 
back in inches; at the top of the loop formed by the flow pipe, 
place an air cock to prevent the pipe from becoming air- 
bound. 

Setting Urinals. — When urinals set against and are con- 
nected through a marble slab, the marble should be kept far 
enough away from the wall to give space for the pipes and fittings ; 
then there should be a hole cut through the marble back of the 
urinal, large enough so a person can reach in behind the marble 
to unscrew the connections. In this way the urinal can be 
taken down and the connections broken without taking down 
the marble. 

To Solder Lead to Brass. — Tin the brass using tallow as a 
flux; then using a muriatic acid flux solder the brass and lead 
together. 

Use of Wrench or Tongs on Valves. — When screwing on 
a valve always use the wrench or tongs on the end of the valve 
being screwed on the pipe; if the wrench is used on the hexagon 
farthest from the pipe the body of the valve receives all the twist 
and strain and which is liable to twist the body of the valve and 
spring the seat, causing a leaky valve. Always close valves tight 
before screwing them on to pipe or screwing pipe into them, as 
this makes the body of the valve more rigid and not so liable to 
be twisted or sprung. 



MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 475 

MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 

LINEAR MEASURE. 

1 hair's breadth = ?V inch. 

3 barleycorns (lengthwise) . . = 1 inch. 

7 . 92 inches = 1 link. 

12 inches. . . = 1 foot = 0.3048 metre. 

3 feet = 1 yard = . 91438 metre. 

5| yards = 1 rod, perch, or pole. 

4 poles or 100 links = 1 chain. 

10 chains = 1 furlong. 

8 furlongs - 1 niile = 1 . 6093 kilometres 

= 5280 ft. 

3 miles (nautical) = 1 league. 

1 line = Tz inch. 

1 nail (cloth measure) = 2\ inches. 

1 palm - 3 inches. 

1 hand (used for height 

of horses) = 4 inches. 

1 span =■ 9 inches. 

1 cubit = 18 inches. 

1 pace (military) = 2£ feet. 

1 pace (common) = 3 feet. 

1 Scotch ell = 37.06 inches. 

1 vara (Spanish) = 33 . 3 inches. 

1 English ell = 45 inches. 

1 fathom = 6 feet. 

1 cable's length =120 fathoms. 

1 "knot" =6082.66 feet. 

1 degree of equator = 69 . 1613 statute miles. 

1 degree of meridian . . . = 69.046 statute miles 

1 degree of equator = 60 geographical miles. 

1 degree of meridian = 59.899 geographical miles. 

1 . 1527 statute miles = 1 geographical mile. 

6086.07 feet = 1 m i n u t e of longitude = l 

nautical mile. 

SQUARE OR SURFACE MEASURE. 

144 square inches = 1 square foot. 

9 square feet =1 square yard = 1296 square inches. 

100 square feet =lsquare (builders' measure). 



476 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LAND MEASURE. 

30 J square yards =1 square rod. 

40 square rods =1 square rood = 1210 square yards. 

4 square roods =1 acre = 4840 square yards. 

640 acres =1 square mile. 

208 . 71 feet square =1 acre. 

1 square mile =1 section of land. 

160 acres. = J section of land. 

CUBIC MEASURE. 

1728 cubic inches =1 cubic foot. 

27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard. 

128 cubic feet =1 cord. 

40 cubic feet =1 American shipping ton. 

42 cubic feet =1 British shipping ton. 

108 cubic feet =1 stack of wood. 

24 . 75 cubic feet of stone =1 perch. 

Note. — In Oklahoma, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Ohio 
a perch is fixed at 25 cu. ft. of stone. In Delaware it is 24| 
cu. ft. in walls, 27 cu. ft. when piled on the ground, 30 cu. ft. 
when in a boat, and 30^ cu. ft. in cars. In Colorado a perch 
of stone in mason work is 16^ cu. ft., and for brickwork measure 
laid in a wall, 22 bricks per cubic foot for a foot wall and 15 
bricks for what is known as an 8-inch wall. In Philadelphia 
22 cu. ft. is considered a perch. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT (ORDINARY COMMERCIAL WEIGHT). 

16 drams = 1 ounce, oz. 

16 ounces = 1 pound, lb. 

28 lbs. (old) = 1 quarter, qr. 

4 quarters (old) ) = x hundredweight 
100 lbs., pounds ) 
20 hundredweight . . . = 1 ton. 

100 pounds = 1 cental. 

175 troy pounds = 144 avoirdupois. 

1 troy pound =5760 grains. 

1 avoirdupois pound = 7000 grains. 

Avoirdupois weight is used to weigh all coarse articles, as hay, 
meat, fish, potash, groceries, flax, butter, cheese, etc., and metals, 
except precious metals. Formerly the usual custom was to 
allow 112 pounds for a hundredweight and 28 pounds for a 



MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 477 

quarter, but this practice has very nearly passed away. The 
custom-house still adheres to the old usage. 



APOTHECARIES' MEASURE— LIQUID. 

60 minims or drops, m.,=l fluid drachm. 

8 fluid drachms. . . , . . = 1 fluid ounce. 
16 fluid ounces =1 pint (octarius). 

8 pints =1 gallon (congius). 

These apothecaries' weights and measures are used by apoth- 
ecaries and physicians in compounding medicines, but drugs 
and medicines are bought and sold by avoirdupois weight. 

The standard avoirdupois pound is the weight of 27.7015 
cubic inches of distilled water weighed in air at 39. 1°, the barom- 
eter at 30 inches. 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT— DRY. 

20 grains. .=1 scruple. 

3 scruples = 1 dram. 

8 drams.. =1 ounce. 
12 ounces =1 pound. 

LIQUID OR WINE MEASURE. 

4 gills =1 pint, pt. 

2 pints =1 quart, qt. 

4 quarts =1 gallon, gal. 

42 gallons =1 tierce. 

1§ tierces or 63 gallons. ... =1 hogshead, hhd. 
84 gallons .....= 1 puncheon. 

1^ puncheons or 126 gallons = 1 pipe. 

2 pipes =1 tun. 

231 cubic inches =1 gallon. 

10 gallons =1 anker. 

18 " =1 runlet. 

31$ " =1 barrel. 

Thio measure is used to measure water, wine, spirits, cider, oil, 
honey, etc. In London the gill is usually called a quartern. 



478 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



ALE OR BEER MEASURE. 



2 pints 


= 1 quart. 


4 quarts. . . . 


= 1 gallon. 


9 gallons. . .. 


= 1 firkin. 


2 firkins. . . . 


= 1 kilderkin. 


2 kilderkins 


= 1 barrel. 


1| barrels. . .. 


= 1 hogshead. 


1J hogsheads 


= 1 puncheon. 


1£ puncheons 


= 1 butt. 



Used to measure beer, ales, porter, etc. An ale gallon meas- 
ures 282 cubic inches. 

ENGLISH WINE MEASURE. 
18 U. S. gallons. ... =1 runlet. 



- 



1 tierce. 



25 English gallons 
42 U. S. gallons 

7£ English gallons. . = 1 firkin of beer. 

4 firkins =1 barrel. 

52\ English gallons 
63 U. S. gallons 

DRY MEASURE. 

2 pints. . . = 1 quart . . = 67.2 cubic inches. 

4 quarts. =1 gallon.. = 268.8 " " 

2 gallons. =1 peck. . .. = 537.6 " " 

4 pecks. . =1 bushel. . =2150.42 " " 

36 bushels = 1 chaldron = 57.244 " feet. 

4 bushels (in England) = 1 coon. 

2 coons ' ' =1 quarter. 

5 quarters " " =1 wey. 
2weys " " =llast. 

A gallon, dry measure, measures 268f cubic inches. 
" " liquid " " 231 

SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE. 

625 square links = 1 square rod, sq. rd. 

16 " rods =1 " chain, sq. ch. 

10 " chains = 1 acre, A. 
640 acres =1 square mile, sq. mi. 

36 square miles or 6 miles square = 1 township, tp. 



MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 479 

SURVEYORS' LONG MEASURE. 

7.92 inches . . = 1 link. 

25 links. . . . = 1 pole. 

100 links. . . . = 1 chain. 

10 chains. . = 1 furlong. 

8 furlongs = 1 mile. 

Used by surveyors, civil engineers, etc., in measuring distances. 

MEASURE OF TIME. 

60 seconds, sec =1 minute, min. 

60 minutes =1 hour, hr. 

24 hours =1 day, dy 

7 days =1 week, wk. 

2 weeks =1 fortnight. 

4 weeks =1 month, mo. 

13 months 1 day 6 hrs. = 1 Julian year. 

365 days 6 hours =1 Julian year. 

366 days =1 leap year. 

12 calendar months . . = 1 year. 

Used for computing time. 

CIRCULAR MEASURE. 
60 seconds, ". . = 1 minute, '. 



60 minutes. . . 
30 degrees. . . 
90 degrees. . . 

12 signs 

4 quadrants 
360 degrees . . 



= 1 degree, °. 
= 1 sign, s. 
= 1 quadrant. 
= a circle. 

= a circumference of a circle. 



Used in measuring latitude, longitude, etc. 

TROY WEIGHT. 

Used in Weighing Gold or Silver. 

24 grains =1 pennyweight, 

20 penny weights = 1 ounce. 
12 ounces =1 pound. 

A carat of the jewellers, for precious stones, is, in the United 
States, 3.2 grains; in London, 3.17 grains; in Paris 3.18 grains 
are divided into 4 jewellers' grains. In troy, apothecaries', and 
avoirdupois weights the grain is the same. 



480 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

MEASURES OF VALUE. 
U. S. Standard. 
10 mills. .=1 cent. 
10 cents. . = 1 dime. 
10 dimes =1 dollar. 
10 dollars = 1 eagle. 

The standard of gold and silver is 900 parts of pure metal and 
100 parts of alloy to 1000 parts of coin. 

WEIGHT OF COIN. 

Double eagle =516 troy grains. 

Eagle =258 troy grains. 

Dollar (gold) = 25.8 troy grains. 

Dollar (silver) =412.5 troy grains. 

Half dollar =192 troy grains. 

5-cent piece (nickel) = 77.16 troy grains. 
3-cent piece (nickel) = 30 troy grains. 
Cent (copper) = 48 troy grains. 

NUMBER OF ENGLISH OR UNITED STATES YARDS IN MILES 
OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 

Name. Yards. Name. Yards. 

Arabian 2,148 Luthenian 9,784 

Bohemian 10,187 Oldenburg 10,820 

Brebant 6,082 Persian (paisang). 6,082 

Burgundy 6,183 Polish (long) 8,101 

Chinese (His) 682 Polish (short) 6,095 

Dutch (Ure) 6,395 Portuguese (leguos) . . . 6,760 

Danish 8,244 Prussian 8,498 

English (U. S.) 1,760 Roman (modern). ..... 2,035 

English (geographical) . . 2,025 Roman (ancient). 1,613 

Flemish 6,869 Russian (verst) 1,167 

German (geographical) . 8,100 Saxon 9,905 

Hamburg 8,244 Scotch. 1,984 

Hanover. . 11,559 Silesian 7,083 

Hesse 10,547 Spanish (leguas) 4,630 

Hungarian 9,113 Spanish (com j. . _, 7,416 

French (art leagues) . . . 4,860 Swiss , 9,166 

French (marine) 6,075 Swedish 11,704 

Legal Le'g'e (2000 toises) 4,263 Turkey 1,821 

Irish 3,338 Tuscan J ,808 

Italian 2,025 Vienna (post mile)'. .... 8,296 






MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 



481 



TABLE OF MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS. 

14 pounds. =1 stone (horseman's weight). 

56 pounds =1 firkin of butter. 

64 pounds =1 firkin of soft soap. 

112 pounds. . =1 barrel of raisins. 

256 pounds =1 pack of soft soap. 

196 pounds =1 barrel of flour. 

200 pounds =1 barrel of beef, pork, or fish. 

280 pounds =1 barrel of salt, New York. 

22 stones (301 lbs.) =1 sack of wool. 

17 stones 2 lbs. (240 lbs.) =1 pack of wool. 

60 pounds =1 truss of hay (new). 

50 pounds =1 truss of hay (old). 

40 pounds =1 truss of straw. 

400 pounds ==1 bale of cotton. 

100 pounds. = 1 quintal of fish. 



COMMON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES AND THEIR 
METRIC EQUIVALENTS. 



An inch = 2. 54 centimetres. 

A foot -.3048 metre. 

A yard = .9144 metre. 

A rod = 5 . 029 metres. 

A mile = 1 . 6093 kilometres. 

A square inch = 6. 452 square 

centimetres. 
A square foot= .0929 sq. m. 
A square yard = . 8361 sq. m. 
An acre = . 4047 hectare. 
A .square mile =259 hectares. 
A cubic foot = .02832 cu. m. 
A cubic yard = . 7646 cu. m. 
A cord =3 . 624 steres. 



A liquid quart = .9465 litre. 

A gallon =3. 786 litres. 

A dry quart =1 .101 litres 

A peck =8. 811 litres. 

A bushel =35 . 24 litres. 

An ounce avoirdupois = 28 . 35 

grams. 
A pound avoirdupois = . 4336 

kilogram. 
A ton = . 9072 tonneau. 
A grain troy = . 0648 gram. 
An ounce troy =31 . 104 grms„ 
A pound troy = .3732 kgrm. 



482 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



U. S. Land Measure. 

A range is a line of townships running north and south, and 
is known by its number east or west of the principal meridian. 

A township is divided into 36 equal squares, called sections, 
each 1 mile squarre, and containing 640 acres. 

A section is variously divided for purposes of sale. The U. S. 
Land Office recognizes the following divisions: 

Half -section = 1 X i mile = | sq. mile = 320 acres 

Quarter-section =hX% mile = | sq. mile = 160 acres 

Half-quarter-section =iXl mile = | sq. mile= 80 acres 

Quarter-quarter-section. . . . =|Xi mile = T 1 Q sq. mile= 40 acres 



Old French Linear and Land Measure. 

12 lines =1 inch 6 feet =1 toise 

12 inches =1 foot 32 toises =1 arpent 

1024 sq. toises =1 sq. arpent 

The French foot equals 12.79 English inches. 
The arpent is the old French name for acre, and contains 
nearly | of an English acre. 



SPANISH LAND MEASURE, 

Sometimes used in Texas, Mexico New Mexico, Arizona, and 
California. 

26,000,000 sq. varas (sq. of 5099 varas)= -j J Jjbor 6 ==4605 - 5 acr e s - 

1,000,000 sq, varas (sq. of 1000 varas) = 1 labor = 177.136 acres. 

25,000,000 sq, varas (sq. of 5000 varas) =1 league =4428.4 acres. 

12,500,000 sq. varas (sq of 3535.5 varas) = \ league =2214.2 acres- 

8,333,333 sq. varas (sq. of 2886.7 varas) = \ league =1476.13 acres. 

6,250,000 sq. varas (sq. of 2500 varas) = } league =1107.1 acres. 

7,225,600 sq. varas (sq. of 2688 varas) ==1280 acres. 

3,612,800 sq. varas (sq. of 1900.8 varas) = 1 section = 640 acres. 

l]806,400 sq. varas (sq. of 1344 varas) = h section = 320 acres. 

903^200 sq. varas (sq. of 950.44 varas) = } section = 160 acres. 

451,600 sq. varas (sq. of 672 varas) = £ section = 80 acres. 

225,800 sq. varas (sq. of 475 varas) = -h section = 40 acres. 

5,645.376 sq. varas (sq. of 75.137 varas) = 4840 sq. yd.= 1 acre. 

To find the number of acres in any number of square varas multiply 
the latter by 177 (or to be more exact, by 177£), and cut off six decimals. 

1 vara = 33J inches. 1900.8 varas = 1 mile. 



MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 483 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

1 polgrada (12 linea) = . 927 inch 

1 pie = 11. 125 inches 

1 vara. „ = 33 . 375 inches 

1 gantah = . 8796 gallon 

L caban = 21 . 991 gallons 

1 libra (16 onzo) = 1 . 0144 lb. av. 

I arroba = 25.360 lb. av. 

1 catty (16 tael) = 1 . 94 lb. av. 

I pecul (100 catty) =139.482 lb. a v. 



Legal Weights (in Pounds) per Bushel of Various Com- 
modities Prepared by Department of Commerce and 
Labor, Bureau of Standards, Washington. 

The list below includes products for which legal weights have 
been fixed in but one or two States. 
Apple seeds, 40 pounds (Rhode Island and Tennessee). 
Beggarweed seed, 62 pounds (Florida). 
Blackberries, 32 pounds (Iowa); 48 pounds (Tennessee); dried, 

28 pounds (Tennessee). 
Blueberries, 42 pounds (Minnesota). 
Bromus inermus, 14 pounds (North Dakota). 
Cabbage, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 
Canary seed, 60 pounds (Tennessee). 
Cantaloupe melon, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 
Cement, 80 pounds (Tennessee). 
Cherries, 40 pounds (Iowa); with stems, 56 pounds (Tennessee); 

without stems, 64 pounds (Tennessee). 
Chestnuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee); 57 pounds (Virginia). 
Chufa, 54 pounds (Florida). 

Cottonseed, staple, 42 pounds (South Carolina). 
Cucumbers, 48 pounds (Missouri and Tennessee); 50 pounds 

(Wisconsin). 
Currants, 40 pounds (Iowa and Minnesota). 
Feed, 50 pounds (Massachusetts). 
Grapes, 40 pounds (Iowa); with stems, 48 pounds (Tennessee); 

without stems, 60 pounds (Tennessee). 
Guavas, 54 pounds (Florida). 
Hickory nuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 



484 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

Hominy, 60 pounds (Ohio); 62 pounds (Tennessee). 

Horseradish, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 

Italian rye-grass seed, 20 pounds (Tennessee). 

Johnson grass, 28 pounds (Arkansas). 

Kaffir corn, 56 pounds (Kansas). 

Kale, 30 pounds (Tennessee). 

Land plaster, 100 pounds (Tennessee). 

Meal, 46 pounds (Alabama); unbolted, 48 pounds (Alabama), * 

Middlings, fine, 40 pounds (Indiana); coarse middlings, 30 

pounds (Indiana). 
Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 pounds (Massachusetts). 
Mustard, 30 pounds (Tennessee). 

Plums, 40 pounds (Florida); 64 pounds (Tennessee). 
Plums, dried, 28 pounds (Michigan). 
Popcorn, 70 pounds (Indiana and Tennessee); in the ear, 42 

pounds (Ohio). 
Prunes, dried, 28 pounds (Idaho); green, 45 pounds (Idaho). 
Quinces, 48 pounds (Florida, Iowa, and Tennessee). 
Rape-seed, 50 pounds (Wisconsin). 

Raspberries, 32 pounds (Kansas); 48 pounds (Tennessee). 
Rhubarb, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 
Sage, 4 pounds (Tennessee). 
Salads, 30 pounds (Tennessee). 
Sand, 130 pounds (Iowa). 
Spelt or spiltz, 40 pounds (North Dakota); 45 pounds (South 

Dakota). 
Spinach, 30 pounds (Tennessee). 

Strawberries, 32 pounds (Iowa); 48 pounds (Tennessee). 
Sugar-cane seed, 57 pounds (New Jersey.) 
Velvet-grass seed, 7 pounds (Tennessee). 
Walnuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee). 

On the pages following are tabulated the products for which 
legal weights have been more widely established. 



MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 



485 



LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL 





Apples. 


eS 

m 


Bea 


ns. 


m 

<D 

pq 


oj 

03 

QQ 
m 

1 
M 
i 

3 


*. 

a 
g 


<u 

<D 
CC 

a 
o 

o 

a 

o 

2 
pq 


O 

pq 


TO 

o 

6 






* 

£ 
a 
a 
< 


03 

£ 

"3. 

< 

43 

•G 


* 

TO 

a 

03 

oj 
pq 


a 


03 
O 
a 
u 

-a 
O 


u. s 




24' 


48 
47 
45 
48 
50 
48 
48 


' 60 ' 

a55 

a60 


50 










42 






Alabama. 
































6 50 


24 






14 


20 


48 


52 
40 
52 
48 






















60 
60 






14 










Conn 


48 


25 




c60 


20 




50 


20 
20 


Florida. .. 


6 48 


24 
24 


48 
47 
4S 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
47 
48 
48 


rf60 
e60 


48 






20 
/20 










Georgia. . 




14 




52 
















645 


28 
24 
25 
24 
24 
24 














42 
52 
50 
52 
50 
56 








e60 
60 
60 
60 

e60 


46 
46 
46 
46 
*45 




14 
14 
14 
gU 
14 


20 








Indiana. . 


'48' 
6 48 






Iowa 

Kansas. . . 


20 
20 
20 


30 




20 


Kentucky 














44 




60 




60 








48 


50 




Maryland 








20 


48 

48 

650 

48' 
45 


25 
22 
28 
26 
24 

24" 


48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 


h 60 
60 
60 

e60 

i60 
60 

e60 
62 
60 
60 








20 




48 
43 
50 
48 
52 
52 
52 


50 




Michigan. 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri. . 

Montana. 

Nebraska 


46 

46' 

46 

46' 


50 
50 ' 


14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 




20 
20 
20 
20 


57 


45 

50' 
50 










N.Jersey. 


50 

48 

50 " 
50 


25 
25 

24' 


48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

46 

47 

4S ' 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 












50 

48 
50 
42 
50 
42 
42 
48 
48 
42 
50 
42 
48 
52 
42 
52 
50 












20 




50 




N. Car. . . 










N. Dakota 


60 
60 
60 




60 
56 
60 




20 


30 






Ohio 


50 




Oklahoma 




20 


30 






45 


28 




















50 


?7cl8 


R. Island. 


48 


25 


60 
60 

urn 

e60 

62 
e60 


46 
46' 


50 
60 
50 


U 


20 
20 
20 
20 


'so 

42 


20 


Tennessee 


650 
45 
46 

645' 


24 

28 

'28' 
28 
25 
25 


50 
50 


22 
22 






60 








14 








Wash. . . . 














W. Va.. . . 


60 
60 
















Wisconsin 


50 




50 




20 




50 





* Not denned. 



a Small white beans, 60 pounds. 
6 Green apples. 

c Sugar beets and mangel wurzel. 
d Shelled beans, 60 pounds; velvet 

beans, 78 pounds. 
e White beans. 
/ Wheat bran. 



Soy beans, 58 pounds. 

Green unshelled beans, 30 pounds. 

Commercially dry, for all hard 

woods. 
Fifteen pounds, commercially 

dry, for all soft woods. 
Dried beans. 



g English blue- grass seed, 22 pounds; native blue-grass seed, 14 pounds. 



486 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— (Continued). 





o 


Coal. 


S3 
O 

O 


Corn. 






* 

"3 

o 
O 


03 

'S , 

xi o 
< 


co 

O 


s 


"3 
o 
o 

a 
a 

O 


"3 
o 
O 

"3 


"3 
o 
O 

<u 
a 
o 

act 


* 

a 

(-1 

o 
O 


u 

OS • 

.a -a 

o 


ij 

r* 03 

o 


c 
o 

a; 
OQ 


* 

3 
3 

a 
u 



O 


u. s. . . . 








80 










56 








18 


















70 


75 


56 






















54 






60 
60 
60 
















70 
70 


74 


56 


18 




80 








80 








50 




80 


































70 


56 
56 


dS 


Georgia. . 
Idaho. . , . 


60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 












80 






70 


13 






























80 






70 

(a) 

670 

c70 




56 
56 
56 


dS 












80 






<=i0 












80 

80 
76 


38 


















50 




76 


76 


76 


76 


76 




d'70 
56 
56 




56 


50 




























p 50 




60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 




















/50 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 


50 


Michigan. 










80 








670 
70 

72 


70 


50 


80 


























80 






18 












80 

76 






50 


















70 
70 


50 












80 






50 
















56 


50 


N. Jersey. 


64 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
















































50 


N. Car. . . 






































80 






70 
68 
70 




56 
56 
56 




Ohio. . 






80 


70 




40 














80 




Oregon. .. 
















075 
80 




76 








40 
40 


58 


















70 




56 


50 


S. Car. . . . 












MS 




60 

?;60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 












80 
80 






70 
70 


/74-' 


56 

56 
















40 






































Virginia . . 
Wash. . . . 












80 






70 




56 


50 


















W. Va. 






80 










56 






























50 





























* Not defined. 



a Corn in ear, 70 pounds until Dec. 

1 next after grown; 68 pounds 

thereafter. 
b In the cob. 
c Indian corn in ear. 
d Corn in ear. from Nov. 1 to May 1, 

following, 70 pounds ; 68 pounds 

from May 1 to Nov, 1. 



e Indian-corn meal. 

/ Cracked corn. 

g Standard weight in borough of 

Greensburg. 
h Standard weight bushel corn meal, 

bolted or unbolted, 48 pounds. 
i Red and white. 
/ Green unshelled corn, 100 pounds. 



MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 



487 



LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— {Continued), 





s| 

o 

o 


.-a 
■35 

O 

O 


Cottonseed. 


.2 

01 

a 
O 


a 

-e . 

81 

C3 EC 

56 


.2 

u 

V 
JO 
0) 

o 
o 
O 


u 

'3 
W 

6o 

'C 
a> 
cc 


73 

8 

ft 

s 

CO 

S3 


m 
g 

a 

-a 
o 

m 


m 

o 

a 
■c • 

cSTJ 
My 






*. 

0) 

m 

a 
o 

o 

o 


T3 

S S 

.2 O 

—l o 
CD 


ft* 3 


u 

o 

s 

o 

e.a 

c3 oj 

i— i 












Alabama. 






32 






























56 




































52 


Colorado. 




















44 






56 








44 


30 




55 






45 




56 


Delaware 


44 


48 










56 


32 
30 


46 




























56 




8 


44 
























56 
















56 
56 

56 

56 
56 


40 


' '8' 

a3 
8 
11 


41 
41 
41 
41 
44 


45 
45 


50 
50 
50 

50 ' 

48 
50 
48 
50 
50 


56 






























33 
































t>56 


Kentucky 






































44 


30 


40 
36 


55 
56 

56' 
56 
56 
56 
55 
55 

56 

56 




fa 56 


Michigan. 








40 


ai' 


44 
50 
44 
41 

44 






















33 






























' 8 


































56 










44 


30 










45 




56 


N. Car. . 
N. Dakota 
Ohio . o 


46 


48 










56 




































44 




50 




Oklahoma 






































56 




























56 


R Island 








41 
(O 


30 




56 










50 




S. Car. . . . 
S. Dakota 
Tennessee 
Texas 


46 


48 


30 












56 
56 
56 














50 


48 


23 
32 








48 


8 


41 
44 


45 


48 
48 














56 
















56 
56 
56 






















56 


W Va 


























Wisconsin 








44 


30 






8 


44 




48 


56 



Not defined. 



a Unwashed plastering hair, 8 
pounds; washed plastering hair, 
4 pounds. 



b Shelled. 
c Matured. 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— (Continued). 





Lime, 


"3 


-2 

3 


O 


Onions. 


m 

<§ 
u 

O 

I'' 
O 




M 
c 

O 

OP'S 

Me 
O 


03 
.2* 

'3 

e 

Ph 


Peaches. 




* 

6 

a 
3 


-2.S 


*_ 

m 

a 

_o 

'3 



O 
OQ 

a 
.2 
'3 
O 


* 

a> 
-a 


A® 


m 
0) 
X! 


is 


U, S 






34 




32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
36 
32 
32 
32 
32 
c32 
e32 
26 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
30 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
30 
32 
32 
32 
















Alabama. . . 














38 


Arizona, . . . 
























Arkansas. . . 








50 


57 












33 


California. ..(.... 


















Colorado, . . 80 








57 
52 
56 
57 














Conn 


70 














45 


a54' 


33 


Florida 






50 








33 






80 












38 


















































80 


38 
635 

32 


50' 

50 
50 
50 


57 
48 
57 

57 
57 
52 


















14 


33 
32 


55 








80 


'80' 
35 


48 












Kentucky. . 




d36 


14 








39 




45 




























70 
70 
80 








52 

54 
52 
57 
57 
57 
57 












33 








50 
48 
50 




14 
14 


33 






28 








42 




28 




80 


38 
30 


33 






/28 


14 


36 


44 
50 


48 


33 






80 








25 




32 




33 




















57 
57 












33 


New York. . 


70 


















33 


N. Car 






















80 
70 
80 






50 
50 


52 
55 
52 














Ohio 




34 










48 


33 
































28 












50 

50 

52 

£56 

57 
52 

57 
















70 
80 

(a) 




38 


50 








50 


48 


33 












Tennessee. . 


80 




A 50 
50 


7 28 


14 


33 


50 


150 
50 


26 
28 




















Virginia. . . . 




80 


38 


50 


2S 


14 


34 






40 










28 
























33 


Wisconsin. . 


70 


80 


34 


50 


57 








44 




33 













* Not defined. 



a Green peaches. 

b Malt rye. 

c Shelled. 

d Bottom onion sets. 

e Strike measure. 

/ Top onion sets. 



g Slaked lime, 40 pounds. 

h German Missouri and Tennessee 

millet seed. 
i Matured onions. 
/ Button onion sets, 32 pounds. 
I Matured. 



MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 489 

LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— (Continued). 





■2-d 

01 0) 

-o a 
.2D 

Q 


"3 

a 

03 

On 


in 

1 

Cm 


Pease. 


Potatoes. 


d 

CD 


0) 

o 

s 

bD 

O 


a 
o 
O 

0> 

o 




o5 

03 

03 
0) 
CL, 

'•d 

c 

3 
O 

O 


03 —J 


o> 

03 
Cw 


# 
m 

<D 

O 

03 

C 

CM 


o 

o> o 
on. 


03 
O 


CO 

03 
bO 

03 

"3 


US 

Alabama. 
Arkansas . 
Colorado. 

Conn 

D. C 


33 

33 










60 
60 
60 


60 

60' 
60 
60 
60 














55 
50 


60 


















14 






















33 










60 


54 


60 




45 




60 












Florida. .. 
Georgia. . 
Idaho. . . . 
Illinois. . . 


33 
28 
33 
33 
33 
33 


22 


60 








60 
55 


60 
60 










25 




60 


60 




43 








a 45 










50 
55 
46 
50 
55 


60 






56 














60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
56 
60 

60 
60 ' 


















































24 




60 
60 


60 






















60 






































60 
60 
60 
60 
c60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 


54 
56 
55 
60 
56 






45 






Michigan 












60 
60 
60 
60 


614 
614 


















^ 


Mississippi 








24 


56 ' 








48 
45 


614 






50 




















50 


60 










































54 
54 


60 
60 










New York 














45 
44 






N Car 




22 












60 
56 


46 
50 
46 


60 
60 
60 






Ohio .... 














































45 














Penn 
























R. Island . 












c60 
60 
60 


54 
46 
50 
55 


60 
60 
60 
60 










S Dakota 




















Tennessee 




23 


d56 




30 


614 
















Vermont 












60 

e60 


60 

60 
60 










Virginia. . 
Wash, . . . 


32 


22 


a45 






56 


56 


12 








W. Va. . . . 




































60 


54 


60 




45 




m 

















* Not defined. 



o Green. 

6 Seed 

c Including split pease. 



d Matured nears, 56 pounds; dried 

pears. 26 pounds. 
e Black-eyed pease. 



490 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL— {Continued) 





1 


i 


Salt. 


* 

m 
u 
O 

si 


-6 

09 

B 
d 
-d 

bD 

M 
O 

02 


tn 
a> 


"el 

a 

O 

H 


■d 

s 

CQ 
>> 

O 

s 


Turnips. 






~3 
02 


43 
m 

09 

d 


"3 

09 

u 
% 


* 

CO 

D. 

'd 


Si 





c3 


U.S.'.. 




56 
56 
56 
56 
54 
56 
56 




60 


















55 




60 
60 
60 

60 


















Arkansas. . . 


'50' 


50 








50 




60 


57 




California, . . 








Colorado. . . 


80 












45 






60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 


Conn 


50 


70 


20 








50 


Delaware. . 










Florida. .... 




56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
50 


60 








56 






54 
55 




Georgia. . . . 










45 


Hawaii 














Idaho. 
























'56' 
50 
50 
50 


55 


50 








45 

45 
45 
45 
45 


55 
55 




60 
60 
60 


Indiana. . . . 










Iowa. , 








a 30 
56 




Kansas 


50 ' 








55 
60 




60 


Kentucky. . 


55 






60 


Louisiana. . . 










60 






60 


70 












50 


60 








60 










50 

SO' 
50 ' 


56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 


56' 


50 


70 


20 




45 

45 
45 

45 
45 






60 


Michigan. . . 






58 




60 


Minnesota. . 








57 
42 
42 


45' 


60 




50 
50 
50 
50 








55 

50 
55 




60 










60 










60 










30 




60 










60 






















60 






56 


70 


20 






45 






60 












60 




80 












45 
45 
42 


60 
60 
60 




60 


Ohio. ...... 










56 


60 






80 










60 














60 






80' 
50 
50 
70 
50 


c62 

50 


85 
70 














60 


R. Island. .. 
S Dakota . . 


50 


20 




56 


45 
42 
45 
45 

45 


50 
60 
50 
55 

55 




60 
60 










50 


56 
55 


60 


Texas .... 








60 


Vermont. , . 


50' 










660 
60 














60 
















45 
45 






60 






50 


70 


20 






42 




60 











* Not defined. 



a Sorechum saccharatum seed, 
6 India wheat, 46 pounds. 



c Ground salt, 70 pounds. 






MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 491 



RULES RELATIVE TO THE CIRCLE. 



To Find Circumference: 

Multiply diameter by 3.1416, 
or divide " " 0.3183. 

To Find Diameter: 

Multiply circumference by 0.3183, 
or divide " " 3.1416. 

To Find Radius: 

Multiply circumference by 0.15915, 
or divide " " 6.28318. 

To Find Side of an Inscribed Square: 
Multiply diameter by 0.7071, 

or multiply circumference by 0.2251, 
"divide " " 4.4428. 

To Find Side of an Equal Square: 

Multiply diameter by 0.8862, 

or divide " " 1.1284, 

" multiply circumference by 0.2821, 
" divide M " 3.545. 

Square. 

A side multiplied by 1.1442 equal diameter of its circum- 
scribing circle. 

A side multiplied by 4.443 equal circumference of its circum- 
scribing circle. 

A side multiplied by 1.128 equal diameter of an equal circle. 

A side multiplied by 3.547 equal circumference of an equal 
circle. 

Square inches multiplied by 1.273 equal circle inches of aD 
equal circle. 

To Find the Area of a Circle: 

Multiply circumference by one-quarter of the diameter, 
or multiply the square of diameter by 0.7854, 

" " " " " circumference ", 0.07958, 

" " " " " § diameter " 3.1416. 



492 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



To Find the Surface of a Sphere or Globe: 
Multiply the diameter by the circumference, 
or multiply the square of diameter by 3.1416, 
" " four times the square of radius by 3.1416. 

To Find the Weight of Brass and Copper Sheets, Rods, 
and Bars: 
Ascertain the number of cubic inches in piece and multiply 

same by weight per cubic inch. 
Brass, 0.2972. 
Copper, 0.3212. 

Or multiply the length by the breadth (in feet) and product 
by weight in pounds per square foot. 



TABLE TO FIND AREAS . ETC. 


, OF POLYGONS 




Name of 
Polygon, 


No.of 
Sides. 


A 
Area. 


B 
Radius 
of Cir- 
cum- 
scribed 
Circle. 


C 

Length 
of the 
Side. 


D 

Radius 
of In- 
scribed 
Circle. 


Angle 
Con- 
tained 
between 
Two 
Sides. 


Triangle 

Tetragon 

Pentagon. 

Hexagon 

Heptagon 

Octagon 

Nonagon 

Decagon 

Undecagon. . 
Dodecagon. . , 


3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 


0.433013 

1 

1 . 720477 

2.598076 

3.633912 

4.828427 

6 181824 

7 694209 
9 36564 

11.196152 


0.5773 
0.7071 
0.8506 

1 

1 . 1524 

1 . 3066 

1.4619 

1.618 

1 . 7747 

1.9319 


1.732 
1.4142 
1 1756 

0.8677 
0.7653 
684 
618 
5634 
5176 


2887 
0.5 
6882 

866 

1 0383 
1 2071 
1 3737 
1 5383 
1 7028 
1.866 


60° 

90° 

108° 

120° 

128.57° 
135° 
140° 
144° 

14? 27° 
150° 



To find the area of a regular polygon when the length of 
one side is given: Multiply the square of the side by the mul- 
tiplier opposite to the name of the polygon in column A of the 
following table. 

To compute the radius of a circumscribing circle when the 
length of one side is given: Multiply the length of a side of the 
polygon by the number in column B. 

To compute the length of a side of a polygon that is contained 
in a given circle when the radius of the circle is given: Multiply 
the radius of the circle by the number opposite the name of the 
desired polygon in column C. 

To compute the radius of a circle that can be inscribed in a 
given polygon when the length of a side is given: Multiply the 
length of a side of the polygon by the number opposite the 
name of the polygon in column D. 



MENSURATION TABLES, • ETC. 493 



MULTIPLIERS FOR FACILITATING CALCULATIONS. 

Cubic inches X. 4103= lbs. of lead. 

Cubic inches X. 3225== lbs. of copper. 

Cubic inches X. 328 =lbs. of cast copper. 

Cubic inches X .268 = lbs. of tin. 

Cubic inches X .304 = lbs. of brass. 

Cubic inches X .253 = lbs. of zinc. 

Cubic inches X .260 = lbs. of cast iron. 

Cubic inches X .282 = lbs. of "wrought iron. 

Cubic inches X. 004329 =U. S. gallons. 

Cubic inches X .00058 = cubic feet. 

Cubic inches X .000466= U. S. bushel. 

Cubic inches of water X. 03617= lbs. avoir. 

One cubic inch of water= .0361 lb. 

Cubic feet X .03704= cubic yards. 

Cubic feet X .8036 = U. S. bushel. 

Cubic feetX7.48=U. S. gallons. 

Cubic feet of wa'erX 62.42= lbs. avoir. 

One cubic foot of water= 62.42 lbs. avoir. 

1.6 cubic feet of water= 1 cwt. ('00). 

32.04 cubic feet of water=l ton (2000). 

1.8 cubic feet of water= 1 cwt. (112). 

35.88 cubic feet of water=l ton (2240). 

Square inches X .007= square feet. 

Square feet X .1 1 1 = square yards. 

Circular inches X .00546= square feet. 

183.346 circular inches= 1 square foot. 

Cylindrical inches X .0004546= cubic feet. 

Cylindrical inches X. 0034= U. S. gallons. 

Cylindrical inches of water X. 02842= lbs. avoir. 

Cylindrical feet of water X 49.1= lbs. avoir. 

Cylindrical feet X 5.874= U. S. gallons. 

One cylindrical inch of water= .0284 lb. 

One cylindrical foot of water— 49.10 lbs. 

2200 cylindrical inches= 1 cubic foot. 

U. S. bushel X .0495 = cubic yards. 

" " X 1.2446 = " feet. 

" " X2150.42= " inches. 



494 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

U. S. gallons X. 13367= cubic feet. 

U. S. gallon liquid measure X 231 = cubic inches. 

13.44 U. S. gal. of water=l cwt. (112). 

268.8 " " " " =1 ton (2240). 

12 " " " " «1 cwt. (100). 

240 " " " " >1 ton (2000). 

One gallon of water =8.34 lbs. 

One gallon =.13368056 cubic foot. 

Lbs. avoirdupois X. 009 =cwt. (112). 

X. 00045= tons (2240). 
One pound of water=27.7 cubic inches. 
One pound of water=.16 cubic foofe. 
Lineal feet X. 0001 9 = miles. 

11 yards X.0006 = " 

' links X.22 = yards. 

" " X.66 =feet. 

feet Xl.5 = links. 

Square yards X .0002067 = acres. 
Acres X 4840 = square yards. 

Width in chains X 8. = acres per mile. 

Velocity in feet per second X 68= miles per hour. 
Velocity in feet per second X. 60= feet per minute. 
Velocity in feet per second X. 20= yards per minute. 
Inches per second X 5= feet per minute. 
Inches per second X 300= feet per hour. 
Head of water in feet -— pressure of water in lbs. per square foot 

X.016. 
Head in feetX.434=lbs. per square inch. 
Pounds per square inch X 2.3= head in feet. 
Pressure of water in lbs. per square foot=head in feet X 62.32. 
One pound pressure of water= 2.042-inch column of mercury. 
Column of water 12 inches high, 1 inch diameter= .341 lb. 
One atmosphere= 2116.3 lbs. per square foot. 
One atmosphere =33.947 feet of water at 62 degrees Fahrenheit. 
One circular mill is the area of a circle .001 inch in diameter. 
1,000,000 circular mills=one circular inch. 






MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 



495 



AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SIDES OF SQUARES OF SAME AREA. 

(Diameter multiplied by .8862 equals sides of an equal square.) 



_2 
"3 


a m 


<D 03 2 




C 03 
■r-1 (O 


.5 

P 03 4> 


.a 


.8« 

OI 


2 03 S 


6 


.s-g 


03 £. O 


b 


■§£ 


§ s-g 


o 


Oi^3 

T. O 


§£•3 


O 03 


.Sh 
o oj 




oi a 


Ma 

o oa 


O 03 03 


"3 g 

11 


"o c3 


— a 2 

O 03 03 


p 


2 3 

03 ft 


r s 


ii 




13 


is 


™ m 3 

0>*_ O* 
T3 OCQ 


<J 


m 


Q 


< 


QQ 


s 


< 


m 


i 


.785 


.89 


21 


346.36 


18.61 


41 


1320.26 


36.34 


i* 


1.767 


1.33 


211 


363.05 


19.05 


411 


1352.66 


36.78 


2 


3.142 


1.77 


22 


380.13 


19.50 


42 


1385.45 


37.22 


2* 


4.909 


2.22 


221 


397.61 


19.94 


421 


1418.63 


37.66 


3 


7.069 


2.66 


23 


415.48 


20.38 


43 


1452.20 


38.11 


3* 


9.621 


3.10 


231 


433.74 


20.83 


43§ 


1486.17 


38.55 


4 


12.566 


3.54 


24 


452.39 


21.27 


44 


1520.53 


38.99 


4* 


15.904 


3.99 


241 


471.44 


21.71 


441 


1555.29 


39.44 


5 


19.635 


4.43 


25 


490.88 


22.16 


45 


1590.43 


39.88 


61 


23.758 


4.87 


251 


510. 7J 


22.60 


45* 


1625.97 


40.32 


6 


28.274 


5.32 


26 


530.93 


23.04 


46 


1661.91 


40.77 


6| 


33.183 


5.76 


26* 


551.55 


23.49 


46* 


1698.23 


41.21 


7 


38.485 


6.20 


27 


572.56 


23.93 


47 


1734.95 


41.65 


71 


44.179 


6.65 


271 


593.96 


24.37 


471 


1772.06 


42.10 


8 


50.266 


7.09 


28 


615.75 


24.81 


48 


1809.56 


42.58 


8| 


56.745 


7.53 


28* 


637.94 


25.26 


48* 


1847.46 


42.98 


9 


63.617 


7.98 


29 


660.52 


25.70 


49 


1885.75 


43.43 


9| 


70.882 


8.42 


291 


683.49 


26.14 


491 


1924.43 


43.87 


10 


78.540 


8.86 


30 


706.86 


26.59 


50 


1963.50 


44.31 


10* 


86.590 


9.30 


301 


730.62 


27.03 


50* 


2002.97 


44.75 


11 


95.03 


9.75 


31 


754.77 


27.47 


51 


2042.83 


45.20 


Hi 


103.87 


10.19 


311 


779.31 


27.92 


51* 


2083.08 


45.64 


12 


113.10 


10.63 


32 


804.25 


28.36 


52 


2123.72 


46.08 


12| 


122.72 


11.08 


321 


829.58 


28.80 


52* 


2164.76 


46.53 


13 


132.73 


11.52 


33 


855.30 


29.25 


53 


2206.19 


46.97 


13* 


143.14 


11.96 


331 


881.41 


29.69 


53* 


2248.01 


47.41 


14 


153.94 


12.41 


34 


907.92 


30.13 


54 


2290.23 


47.86 


m 


165.13 


12.85 


341 


934.82 


30.57 


54* 


2332.83 


48.30 


15 


176.72 


13.29 


35 


962.11 


31.02 


55 


2375.83 


48.74 


15* 


188.69 


13.74 


351 


989.80 


31.46 


55* 


2419 . 23 


49.19 


16 


201.06 


14.18 


36 


1017.88 
1046.35 


31.90 


56 


2463.01 


49.63 


16* 


213.83 


14.62 


361 


32.35 


56* 


2507 . 19 


50.07 


17 


226.98 


15.07 


37 


1075.21 


32.79 


57 


2551.76 


50.51 


17* 


240 . 53 


15.51 


371 


1104.47 


33.23 


57* 


2596.73 


50.96 


18 


254.47 


15.95 


38 


1134.12 


33.68 


58 


2642.09 


51.40 


18* 


268.80 


16.40 


381 


1164.16 


34.12 


58* 


2687.84 


51.84 


19 


283.53 


16.84 


39 


1194.59 


34.56 


59 


2733.89 


52.29 


19* 


298.65 


17.28 


39* 


1225.42 


35.01 


59* 


2780.51 


52.73 


20 


314.16 


17.72 


40 


1256.64 


35.45 


60 


2827.74 


53.17 


20* 


330.06 


18.17 


40* 


1288.25 


35.89 









496 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 

DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR EACH & OF AN INCH. 



.0833 

0013 .0846 
0026.0859 
0039 .0872 
0052 .0885 



.0065 
.0078 
.0091 
.0104 

.0117 
.0130 
.0143 
.0156 

.0169 
.0182 
.0195 
.0208 

.0221 
.0234 
.0247 
.0260 

.0273 
.0286 
.0299 
.0312 

.0326 
.0339 
.0352 
.0365 

.0378 
.0391 
.0404 
.0417 

.0430 
.0443 
.0456 
.0469 

.0482 
0495 
,0508 
,0521 

,0534 
0547 
0560 
0573 

0586 
0599 
0612 
0625 



0911 
.0924 
.0937 

.0951 
.0964 
.0977 
.0990 

.1003 
.1016 
.1029 
.1042 

.1055 
.1068 
.1081 
.1094 

.1107 
.1120 
.1133 
.1146 

.1159 
.1172 
.1185 
.11 8 

.1211 
.1224 
.1237 
.1250 

.1263 
.1276 
.1289 
1302 

.1315 

1328 
1341 
.1354 

1367 
1380 
1393 
1406 

1419 
1432 
1445 



1667 

1680 
1693 
.1706 
.1719 

1732 
1745 
1758 
.1771 

.1784 
.1797 
.1810 
.1823 

.1836 
.1849 
.1862 
.1875 

.1888 
.1901 
.1914 
.1927 

.1940 
.1953 
.1966 
.1979 

.1992 

.2005 
.2018 
.2031 

.2044 
.2057 
.2070 
.2083 

.2096 
.2109 
2122 
2135 

2148 
2161 
2174 
2188 

2201 
.2214 
.2227 
2240 



2500 .3333 



2513 
2526 
2539 
2552 

2565 
2578 
2591 
2604 

.2617 
.2630 
.2643 
.2656 

.2669 
.2682 
.2695 
.2708 

.2721 
.2734 

.2747 
.2760 

.2773 
.2786 
,2799 
.2812 

.2826 
.2839 
.2852 
.2865 

.2878 
.2891 
.2904 
.2917 

.2930 
.2943 
.2956 
.2969 

,2982 
,2995 
3008 
3021 

3034 
3047 
3060 
3073 



2253 .3086 
2266 .3099 
.2279 .3112 

14581.2292.3125 



3346 
.3359 
3372 
3385 

3398 
3411 
,3424 
.3437 

.3451 
.3464 
.3477 
.3490 

.3503 
.L516 
.3529 
.3542 

.3555 
.3568 
.3581 
.3594 

.3607 
.3620 
.3633 
.3646 

.3659 
.3672 
.3685 
.3698 

.3711 
.3724 
.3737 
.3750 

.3763 
3776 
3789 

.3802 

3815 
3828 
3841 
3854 

.3867 
3880 
3893 
3906 

.3919 

.3932 
3945 
3958 



4167 .5000 .5833 

4180 .5013 '.5846 
4193 '.5026 1.5859 
4206 .5039 .5872 
4219 .5052 .5885 



4232 
4245 
4258 
4271 

4284 
,4297 
,4310 
,4323 



.5065 .5898 
.5078 .5911 
.5091 .5924 
.5104 .5937 



.5117 
.5130 
.5143 
.5156 



4336 .5169! 
4349 .5182' 
4362 .51951 
,4375 .5208 



.4388 
.4401 
.4414 
.4427 

.4440 
.4453 
.4466 
.4479 

.4492 
.4505 
.4518 
.4531 

,4544 
,4557 
,4570 
4583 



5951 
.5964 
.5977 
.5990 

6003 
.6016 
.6029 
.6042 



.5221 .6055 
.5234.6068 
.5247 .6081 
.5260 .6094 



.5273 
.5286 
.5299 
.5312 

.5326 
.5339 
.5352 
.5365 

.5378 
.5391 
.5404 
.5417 



4596 .5430 
4609 .5443 
4622 .5456 
4635 .5469 



.4648 
.4661 
,4674 
4688 

4701 
4714 
4727 
4740 

.4753 
.4766 
.4779 
.4792 



.5482 
.5495 
.5508 
.5521 

5534 
5547 
5560 
5573 

5586 
.5599 
.5612 
5625 



6667 



.6693 
.6706 
.6719 

.6732 

.6745 
.6758 
.6771 

.6784 
.6797 
.6810 
.6823 

.6836 
.6849 
.6862 
.6875 



.6901 
.6914 
.6927 



6107 

6120 
.6133 
.6146 

.6159 .6992 
6172 .7105 
6185 .7018 
6198J.7031 

.6211 .7044 
.6224 .7057 
.6237 .7070 
.6250 .7083 



6263 
6276 
6289 
6302 



.7096 
.7109 
.7122 
.7135 .7969 



.7500 

.7513 
.7526 
.7539 
.7552 

.7565 
.7578 
.7591 
.7604 

.7617 
.7630 
.7643 
.7656 

.7669 
.7682 
.7695 
.7708 

.7721 
.7734 

.7747 
.7760 

.7773 
.7786 
.7799 
.7812 

.7826 
.7839 
.7852 
.7865 

.7878 
.7891 
.7904 
.7917 

7930 
7943 
7956 



6315 .7148 
6328 .7161 
6341 .7174 
6354 .7188 



.6367 
.6380 
.6393 
.6406 



7201 
7214 

7227 
7240 



6419 .7253 
6432 .7266 
6445 .7279 
6458.7292 



10' 



.8346 
.8359 
8372 



.8398 
.8411 
.8424 
.8437 

.8451 
.8464 
.8477 
.8490 

.8503 
.8516 
.8529 
.8542 

.8555 
.8568 
.8581 
.8594 

.8607 
.8620 
.8633 
.8646 

.8659 
.8672 
.8685 



8711 
8724 
.8737 
8750 



11" 



.9167 

.9180 
.9193 
.9206 
.9219 

.9232 
.9245 
.9258 
.9271 

.9284 
.9297 
.9310 
.9323 



.9349 
.9362 
.9375 

.9388 
.9401 
.9414 

.9427 



9453 
9466 
9479 

9492 
9505 
9518 
.9531 

9544 
9557 
.9570 
9583 



8763 -9596 
8776 -9609 
8789 -9622 
8802 .9635 



.7982 .8815 
.79951.8828 
,8008 8841 
,802l|.8854 



.8034 
.8047 
.8060 
.8073 

,8086 
8099 
8112 
8125 



.8867 



.8906 

8919 
8932 
8945 
8958 



.9648 
.9661 
.9674 
.9688 

.9701 
.9714 
9727 
9740 

9753 
.9766 
9779 
.9792 



MENSURATION TABLES, ETC. 



497 



DECIMALS OF A FOOT FOR 


EACH A OF AN INCH— (Continued). 


Inch. 


0" 


1" 


2" 


3" 


4" 


5" 


6" 


7" 


8" 


9" 


10" 


11" 


II 

if 
H 

I 

1 

l 


.0638 
.0651 
.0664 
.0677 

.0690 
.0703 
.0716 
.0729 

.0742 
.0755 
.0768 
.0781 

.0794 
.0807 
.0820 


.1471 

.1484 
.1497 
.1510 

.1523 
.1536 
.1549 
.1562 

.1576 
.1589 
.1602 
.1615 

.1628 
.1641 
.1654 


.2305 
.2318 
.2331 
.2344 

.2357 
.2370 
.2383 
.2396 

.2409 
.2422 
.2435 
.2448 

.2461 
.2474 

.2487 


.3138 
.3151 
.3164 
.3177 

.3190 
.3203 
.3216 
.3229 

.3242 
.3255 
.3268 
.3281 

.3294 
.3307 
.3320 


.3971 
.3984 
.3997 
.4010 

.4023 
.4036 
.4049 
.4062 

.4076 
.4089 
.4102 
.4115 

.4128 
.4141 
.4154 


.4805 
.4818 
.4831 
.4844 

.4857 
.4870 
.4883 
.4896 

.4909 
.4922 
.4935 
.4948 

.4961 
.4974 
.4987 


.5638 
.5651 
.5664 
.5677 

.5690 
.5703 
.5716 
.5729 

.5742 
.5755 

.5768 
.5781 

.5794 
.5807 
.5820 


.6471 
.6484 
.6497 
.6510 

.6523 
.6536 
.6549 
.6562 

.6576 
.6589 
.6602 
.6615 

.6628 
.6641 
.6654 


.7305 
.7318 
.7331 
.7344 

.7357 
.7370 
.7383 
.7396 

.7409 
.7422 
.7435 
.7448 

.7461 
.7474 
.7487 


.8138 
8151 
.8164 
.8177 

.8190 
.8203 
.8216 
.8229 

.8242 

8255 
.8268 
.8281 

.8294 
.8307 
.8320 


.8971 
.8984 
.8997 
.9010 

.9023 
.9036 
.9049 
.9062 

.9076 
.9089 
.9102 
.9115 

.9128 
.9141 
.9154 


.9805 
.9818 
.9831 
.9844 

.9857 
.9870 

.9883 
.9896 

.9909 
.9922 
.9935 
.9948 

.9961 
.9974 
.9987 
1.0000 



DECIMALS OF AN INCH FOR EACH &TH. 



S^ds. 


Aths. 


Decimal. 


Frac- 
tion. 


rfeds. 


Arths. 


Decimal. 


Frac- 
tion. 




1 


.015625 






33 


.515625 




1 


2 


.03125 




17 


34 


.53125 






3 


.046875 






35 


. 546875 




2 


4 


.0625 


A 


18 


36 


.5625 


A 




5 


.078125 






37 


.578125 




S 


6 


.09375 




19 


38 


.59375 






7 


. 109375 






39 


.609375 




4 


8 


.125 


4 


20 


40 


.625 


t 




9 


. 140625 






41 


.640625 




5 


10 


. 15625 




21 


42 


. 65625 






11 


.171875 






43 


.671875 




6 


12 


.1875 


T$ 


22 


44 


.6875 


H 




13 


.203125 






45 


.703125 




7 


14 


.21875 




23 


46 


.71875 






15 


.234375 






47 


.734375 




8 


16 


.25 


i 


24 


48 


.75 


i 




17 


.265625 






49 


.765625 




9 


18 


.23125 




25 


50 


.78125 






19 


.296875 






51 


.796875 




10 


20 


.3125 


A 


26 


52 


.8125 


H 




21 


.328125 






53 


.828125 




11 


22 


.34375 




27 


54 


.84375 






23 


.359375 






55 


.859375 




12 


24 


.375 


1 


28 


56 


.875 


* 




25 


.390625 






57 


.890625 




13 


26 


.40625 




29 


58 


.90625 






27 


.421875 






59 


.921875 




14 


28 


.4375 


A 


30 


60 


.9375 


H 




29 


.453125 






61 


.953125 




15 


30 


.46875 




31 


62 


.96875 






31 


.484375 






63 


.984375 




16 


32 


.5 


h 


32 


64 


1. 


l 



498 MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 

USEFUL SUGGESTIONS IN CASES OF ACCIDENTS TO MECHANICS. 

Electric Shock. — The patient should be immediately placed 
in position for artificial respiration, preferably on a table with 
a cushion under his shoulders to elevate them slightly. Then 
bring his arms down until his hands rest on his chest, grasp 
his wrists and press firmly against the lower walls of the chest 
for a few seconds, then raise the arms outward and upward 
until the hands meet beyond the head, drawing firmly upward 
for a few seconds; repeat this procedure ten or fifteen times a 
minute. 

Bleeding. — If blood spurts from wound, an artery is divided; 
bind limb tightly above with India-rubber tubing, strap, hand- 
kerchief, or scarf, or bend the limb forcibly at next joint above 
wound, or press flat hand or stone where blood is flowing. If 
blood flows freely, but does not spurt, a vein is divided; then 
apply same measures as in case of wounded artery, but below 
the wound. If scalp is wounded make a pad of cloth or waste, 
and bandage very tightly over wound with folded pocket- 
handkerchief. 

Burns and Scalds. — Apply lint, cotton, wool, or waste soaked 
in oil and lime-water, and bind the same on with handkerchief. 
If necessary to remove clothes cut them off by running knife 
or scissors along seams. 

Broken Leg. — Pull on leg steadily and firmly until it is of 
same length as sound one, Roll up a coat or empty sack into 
form of a cushion, carefully place leg upon it, then bind the 
two together with scarfs or handkerchiefs. Do not lift patient 
from the ground until stretcher is close at hand. Take great 
pains, by careful lifting, to prevent broken bone coming through 
skin. 

Broken Thigh.— Take hold of ankle and, by steady traction, 
pull limb to same length as sound one; another person must then 
tie knees together, and afterward the ankles. Both limbs should 
then be laid over a sack of straw, or folded coat, so as to bend 
the knees. Patient should on no account be moved until 
stretcher or cart is close at hand. 



A FEW ODDS AND ENDS 



499 



Broken Arm. — Pull arm to length of sound one. Apply two 
splints, one outside and the other inside, binding them firmly 
on with pocket-handkerchiefs. The best splints are made by 
folding newspapers to necessary length, binding them above 
and below seat of fracture ; anything hard and light, of suitable 
size, would act equally well; for instance, wood, pasteboard, 
twigs, leather, etc. 

A FEW ODDS AND ENDS FOR THE NOON-HOUR. 

A Very Deceptive Problem. — Cut a piece of paper 8 inches 
square, containing 64 square inches, to fill a space 5 X 13 inches 
and containing 65 square inches. 



•4 




Fig. 185. 




-13- 



Fig. 186. 

Cut the square piece of paper as shown by Fig. 185 and put 
together as shown by Fig. 186, it will then measure 5 x 13 inches, 
but if the sides of the 13-inch figure are kept straight there 



500 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



will be an opening in the center as shown. This explains the 
extra inch. 

Which line is the longer, the horizontal or the perpendicular 
in Fig. 187? Speak quick. 



Fig. 187. 

To Cut a Block 12 x 12 Inches to Fill a Hole 9x 16 Inches. 
— Cut as shown by Fig. 188 and pat together as shown by 
Fig. 189. 



-*— 




12^- 


> 


4* 


4' 






CO 


fa 





Fig. 188. Fig. 189. 

Which is the greater distance, A to B or B to C, Fig. 190. 




< 



Fig. 190. 



A FEW ODDS AND ENDS. 



501 



Draw Fig. 191 without lifting the points of the pencil from 
the paper, making one continuous line. 



Fig 191. 



To Cut a Five-point Star at One Cut. — Take a squai-e 
piece of paper and fold it as shown by Fig. 192, 1 to 5, the first 




Fig. 192. 



fold is shown at 2, the second fold is shown at 3, etc., whe: 
folded cut on the line shown in 5. 



502 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



The Leaking-ship Problem. — A ship at sea strikes a rock 
and knocks a hole in the bottom 8 x 15 inches. The ship's 
carpenter has a piece of board 10 x 12 inches. How can he 
cut it to fill the hole? 

Cut it as shown by Fig- 193, and put together as shown by 
Fig. 194. 





Fig. 193. Fig. 194. 

Which of the horizontal lines in Fig. 195 is the longer? 







Fig. 195. 



Which of the lower diagonal lines in Fig. 196 is in line with 
the line above ? 



A FEW ODDS AND ENDS 



503 




Pig. 196. 

Are the horizontal lines in Fig. 197 parallel or not ? 




Fig. 197. 
Which of the dotted lines in the cross is the longer ? 




504 



MECHANICS' READY REFERENCE 



Which of the circular sections is the longer, A or B? 
Are the heavy lines in Fig. 200 parallel? 

Fig. 201 shows a perfectly straight rule laid over a number 
of concentric circular rings. As will be seen it gives the rule a 




Fig. 199 



fflmmnimu'ui i 
mmmmmmm 



Fig. 200. 




Fig. 201. 

curved appearance. The circular rings also appear distorted, 
as the rings on one side of the rule do not appear to be a con- 
tinuation of those on the other side, but this can be proved by 
sighting along the lines 



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INDEX 



A. 

PAGE 

Abuse of values 384 

Acids, effect on lead 118 

Acid flux 459 

Air duct 3 

Air required per person 60 

Aid to injured 498 

Ale measure 478 

Alloys, fusion of 155 

Alloys of metals 178 

Aluminum paint on galvanized iron 473 

Aluminum sheets, weight, etc 297 

Aluminum solder 459 

Aluminum, to solder 283 

Amount of lead for joints 159 

Angles of roofs 204 

Apothecaries' measure 477 

Approximates 27 

Aquarium cement 463 

Aqueous vapor in gas 310 

Area of pipe required for water 244 

Arm, broken 499 

Asbestos mill board, weight, etc 297 

Asbestos plastic cement 59 

Asphalt pipe joints 254 

Asphyxiation, rules in case of 334 

Atmosphere, pressure of 178 

Attention of boiler 87 

Avoirdupois measure 476 

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Baffle plates 7 

Bars, weight of brass and copper 193 

Bases of electric lamps 369 

Basin cocks, location of 472 

Bath tubs, dimensions of 457 

Bells, weight, etc., of 292 

Belt, to split 366 

Belting 453 

Bench, portable 361 

Bending lead pipe 454 

509 / 



510 INDEX 



PAGE 

Bending pipe with " Hicky " 372 

Black sheets, weight of 286, 289 

Bleeding 498 

Block tin pipe, size and weight 187 

Blowing off boiler 85 

Boiler and pipe covering 57 

Boilers, blowing off 85 

capacity of galvanized 190 

care of 87 

connections to 66 

data on 79 

erection of sectional 80 

horse power of 85 

names of parts 83 

selecting 79 

size of tubular 57 

to find strength of 87 

Boiling point of fluids 57 

Boiling point of liquids 153 

Boiling point of water 244 

Bolt heads, weight of 198 

Bolts, strength of 177 

Bolts, weight of 198 

Bottle, to cut 467 

Boxes, capacity of 173 

Branches main will supply 27 

Brass pipe, making of 121 

Brass sheets, weights, etc 295 

Brazing flux 461 

Brazing, rules for 382 

Brightening brass 468 

British thermal unit 40 

Bright tin, weight, etc 290 

Broken arm 499 

Broken leg 498 

Broken thigh 498 

Bronzing 59 

Bronzing liquid 472 

Bronzing pipes, etc 472 

Brush troughs, preventing freezing 457 

Bursting strength of brass and copper 176 

Building up threads 472 

Burns and scalds 498 

Bushel, weight of 483 

C. 

Capacity of boxes 173 

centrifugal pumps 216 

cylinder, to find 245 

cisterns 172 

drain tile 261 



INDEX 511 

PAGE 

Capacity of expansion tanks 173 

excavations 261 

gallons, different 248 

galvanized boilers 190 

gas pipes 308, 330 

hot air pipes 151 

house service pipes 169 

mains 27 

nozzles or jets 224 

Pipes 230, 235 

pneumatic tanks 236 

Pumps 216, 239 

registers 151 

sewers 259 

tanks 171 

waste pipes 337 

watering tanks 175 

weir-dam 218 

Care of boilers 87 

Carrying capacity of sewers 259 

Carrying smoke to two outlets 386 

Cast iron fittings, weight of 317 

Cast iron pipe fittings 72, 199 

Cast iron pipe, length per ton 196 

Cast iron pipe, safe pressure 184 

Cast iron pipe, weight of 316 

Cause of radiators not heating 60 

Cellar drainers 99 

Cement for steam joints 462 

Cement for waste connections 463 

Cement joints for gas mains 322 

Cement required for sewer joints 255 

Cesspool, to build 376 

Centrifugal pumps, capacity of 216 

Chimneys 92 

Chimney fires, to extinguish 469 

Chimney flues 94 

Circle, to find area, etc 491 

Circular measure 479 

Circumference, to find with rule 366 

Cleaning brass 453 

Cleaning copper 451 

Cleaning marble 451 

Cleaning sewers 257 

Cleaning waste pipes 473 

Cleanout plug, to remove 363 

Clinkers, to loosen 469 

Closet connections 380 

Coal in bins, amount 46 

Coins, weight of 480 

Cold air duct 3 



512 INDEX 

PAGE 

Combustion of coal 61 

Coloring electric lamps 470 

Common weights and measures 481 

Comparative pipe areas 28 

Composition of metals 178 

Composition of solder . 283 

Compressibility of water 229 

Computation tables 138 

Computing radiating surface 29 

Computing flow, etc., of water 248 

Computing sizes of drains 163 

Conductor pipes, size of 123 

Connections to boilers 66 

Connection of branch to main sewer 253 

Connections of wall radiators 71 

Connecting boiler to two sources of heat 368 

Connecting closet to soil pipe 380 

Connecting heater to boiler 367 

Connecting lead to iron pipe 386 

Connecting up water-backs 472 

Connections to radiators 67 

Contents of boilers 190 

boxes 173 

cisterns 172 

excavations 261 

marble slabs 155 

pipe per foot length 235, 247 

pneumatic tanks 236 

rectangular tanks 171 

rooms ." 138 

Copper sheets, weight, etc 296 

Copper, to clean 451 

Corrugated sheets, estimating quantity of 290 

Corrugated sheets, weight, etc 291 

Cost of tin roofing 287 

Couplings for gas and water pipes 314 

Covering pipes in concrete 72 

Crimping stove pipe 367 

Crooked threads, to locate 464 

Cubical contents of rooms 138 

Cubic measure 476 

Current, fall to produce 259 

Cutting gaskets 370 

D. 

Data for hot water heating 25 

Data for steam heating 26 

Data on boilers 79 

Data on pumps 238 

Decimals of foot 496 

Decimals of inch 497 



INDEX 513 

PAGE 

Depth of suction of pump 238 

Diagonals, length of 160 

Diameter of pipe, to compute 249 

Diameter of pump cylinder, to find 469 

Dimensions of hot air stacks 148 

Dimensions of registers 149 

Dimensions for liquid measures 174 

Direct hot water heating 20 

Direct-indirect heating 24 

Directions for working around gas pipes 333 

Discharge of water in pipes 248 

Discharging capacity of sewers - 260 

Distinguishing steel and iron 51, 454 

D plates, weight, etc 290 

Drain tile, capacity of 261 

Drills for brick or stone 365 

Dry measure 478 

Dry steam 40 

Ducts for indirect heating •. . 29 



E. 

Effect of acids on lead 118 

Effects of temperature 153 

Ejectors 98 

Electricity for thawing pipes 109 

Electric lamps, base of 369 

Electric lamps, length of service 467 

Electric meter, to read Ill 

Electric shock 498 

English wine measure 478 

Equation of pipes 237 

Equation of pipes with square 379 

Erection of boilers 80 

Escutcheon pins, number to pound 293 

Etching on metals 471 

Examples of modern plumbing 399 

Excavating tables 261 

Excavation for sewers 250 

Expansion loop 71 

Expansion tanks, capacity of 173 

Expansion of: 

joint in gutters 280 

various materials 170 

water in freezing 243 

wrought iron pipe 45 



F. 

Fall of sewers 257 

Fall to produce current 259 



514 INDEX 

PAGfl 

False water line in return 17 

Fastening hose to pipe 369 

Fastening tools in handles 470 

Filling sewer trench 254 

Filling wax for granite 454 

Finding circumference with rule 366 

Finishing asbestos covering 465 

Finishing and painting tin roofing 273 

Fire clay substitute 468 

Fire streams, height of 229 

Fittings, making 473 

Fixing pencil marks 470 

Fixtures, care of, in vacant houses 465 

Flames, temperature of 154 

Flanged pipe, weight of 319 

Flanges, dimensions of 164 

Flat seams, method of making 278 

Flat steel, weight of 205 

Flow of gas 306 

Flow of water from tanks 465 

Flow of water through pipes 169, 230 

Flue area required for air 145 

Flues 12 

Flue linings, weight, etc 194 

Flue size for indirect radiators 56 

Flues, size in chimneys 94 

Fluids, boiling point of 57 

Flumes and ditches 258 

Flux for soldering zinc 454 

Flux for tinware 460 

Flux to use in soldering 283 

Foot, decimals of 496 

Former for bending pipe 371 

Formula for lead pipe 117 

Foundation of furnace 1 

French land measure 482 

Fresh air inlet 337 

Fresh air regulating duct 5 

Freezing water, expansion of 243 

Freezing water pipe 467 

Frozen pipes, to thaw 466 

Furnace : 

baffle plates for 6 

cold air duct for 3 

flue for 12 

foundation for 2 

location of 1 

pipes and registers 7 

regulating duct for 5 

Fusion of alloys 155 

Fusing points of solder 159, 283 



INDEX 515 

G. 

PACJE 

Gallons delivered from nozzles 246 

Gallons in cisterns 172 

Gallons in pipes 235, 247 

Gallons in tanks 171 

Galvanized sheet metal, weight of 286 

Gas: 

drop clamp 304 

fitters' cement 464 

fitting rules 324 

flow of 308 

pipes, capacity of 305, 306 

fixtures, to clean 472 

logs, supply pipe to 308 

pipes, size, etc 311 

Piping 303 

piping specifications 447 

ranges, pipe to supply 308 

size of service pipe for 308 

stoves, care of , 106 

supply through pipes 309 

Gaskets, removing old 370 

Gaskets, to cut 370 

Gaskets, to insert 369 

Gauge, U. S. standard 285 

Glass gauge, to cut 467 

Glass, to remove 452 

Globe valves, position of 383 

Greenhouse heating 27 

Gutters, size of 456 



H. 

Hack saw, to use 469 

Hammering in boilers, etc 471 

Hanging indirect stacks 56 

Head of water, to compute 249 

Heating by pipe coils 29 

Heating by steam 34 

Heating rules 34 

Heating surface of pipe radiators 131 

Heating surface of radiators 126 

Heating value of oil 474 

Heat to produce steam 46 

Heat units in water 52 

Heavy pipe flanges 106 

Height of tapping of radiators 122 

Height of water projected from nozzles 246 

Heights pumps will lift water 241 

Height siphon will lift 465 



516 INDEX 

PAGE 

" Hicky " for bending pipe 372 

Hinges, to lead in stone 454 

Holding waste pipe 362 

Horse power : 

meaning of 119 

of belting 453 

of boilers 85 

of steam engine 47, 462 

of water through nozzles 224 

of windmill 462 

to elevate water 245 

Horse-troughs, height of 457 

Hose, connecting to pipe 369 

Hot air pipe, weight, etc 195 

Hot water heating : 

data for 25 

direct 20 

direct-indirect 24 

indirect 22 

overhead system of 22 

radiating surface for 25 

size of mains for 45 

House drains, fall of 257 

House drain, meaning of 398 

House sewer, meaning of 398 

How pipes are made 315 

Hydraulics , 216 

Hydraulic ram 101 

Hydraulic pipe, strength of 179 

Hydraulic pipe, weight of 179 

I. 

Impression wax 455 

Improved acid flux 459 

Inch; decimals of 497 

Injectors 97 

Ink for zinc 456 

Inclination of pipe, to compute 249 

Inclination of sewers 250, 257 

Increasing heating power of coal 470 

Inserting gaskets 369 

Installation of heating apparatus 52 

Insulating paste 469 

Indirect heating 22 

Iron pipe, to distinguish 51 

J. 

Joints In sewer pipe 252 

Joints of sewer pipe 253 



INDEX 517 



L. 

PAGE 

Labor saving tools 388 

Land measure 476 

Latent heat of steam 41 

Lead: 

against oak wood 474 

joints under water 469 

melting device 372 

memorandum 118 

pipes, size and weight 186 

pipe, making of 121 

properties of 115 

required for hub joints 159 

traps, size, etc 189 

wastes, where used 394 

weight of 202 

weight of sheet 196, 199 

wire, size, etc 194 

wool 472 

Leak, what it amounts to 464 

Leg, broken 498 

Lengths of diagonals 160 

Lever, power of 456 

Life of iron pipe 458 

Lift of pump 238 

Linear measure 475 

Linseed oil flux 460 

Liquid measure 477 

Liquid measures, dimensions of 174 

Liquids, weight of 188 

List of cast-iron fittings , 358 

Locating crooked threads - 464 

Locating obstruction in flue 366 

Location of radiators 25 

Location of furnace 1 

Loss of head of water by friction 232 

Lubricating oil ? 457 

Lumber, weight of 292 

M. 

Machinery, preventing rusting 466 

Mains for indirect heating 44 

Making brass and lead pipe 121 

Making chimneys soot proof 454 

Malleable pipe fittings 72 

Marble, to clean 451 

Marble slabs, contents of 155 

Meaning of horse power II 9 

Measuring pipe and fittings 375 

Measurement of large streams 219 



518 INDEX 

PAGE 

Measurements of radiators 134 

Melting old lead 372 

Melting point of fusible plugs 160 

Melting point of metals 153 

Mercury, to collect spilled 466 

Mensuration tables: 

ale or beer 478 

apothecaries' 477 

avoirdupois 476 

circular 479 

coin 480 

cubic „ 476 

dry 478 

English wine 478 

French land 482 

land 476 

linear 475 

liquid 477 

metric equivalents 481 

miscellaneous 481 

Philippine 483 

Spanish land 482 

surveyors' 478 

square 475 

time 479 

troy 479 

United States land 482 

value 480 

Metals, to clean 455 

Metal shingles, weight of 302 

Metal siding, weight of ... . 284 

Meter connections 304 

Meter, to read Ill 

Miles, length of 480 

Mineral wool, weight of 196 

Miners' inch measurement 219 

Miscellaneous heating data 24 

Miscellaneous information 92 

Miscellaneous receipts 451 

Modelling clay, to make 452 

Mode of laying sewers 251 

Modern plumbing 399 

Modern specifications 399, 428 

Monkey wrench, use of 389 

Moulds for plaster casts 455 

Movement of air 145 

Multipliers for calculations 493 

N. 

Nailing in hard woods 456 

Names of parts of boilers 83 



INDEX 519 



Names of parts of valve 363 

Names of soil pipe fittings 344 

Natural gas, piping for 328 

Notching corners of tin sheets 281 

Notes on heating 60 

Non-conducting pipe coverings 33 

Nuts, weight of 198 

O. 

Obstruction in flue, to locate 366 

Odds and ends 499 

Oil for oil stoves 456 

One pipe circuit system 14 

One pipe relief system 15 

One pipe single system 14 

Overhead feed system of heating 22 

P. 

Painting galvanized iron 473 

Painting sheets of tin 279 

Paper under tin 455 

Partition in hot air riser 9 

Paste for paper to iron 456 

Penny as applied to nails 456 

Peppermint test 342 

Philippine weights and measures 483 

Pipe bends 72 

Pipe bending former 371 

Pipe flanges, dimensions of 167 

Pipe hangers 339 

Pipe radiators, heating surface 131 

Pipes and registers 7 

Pipes, how made 315 

Pipe, to sling 366 

Piping of heating systems 63 

Pitch of roofs 453 

Placing valve or stop cock 375 

Planished iron, weight, etc 299 

Plaster casts, to toughen : 454 

Plaster paris, to prevent setting 471 

Plate glass, weight of 299 

Plumb bob 362 

Plumb bob, to cast 466 

Plumbers' bench 361 

Plumbers' soil 465 

Pneumatic tanks, pressure in 236 

Pocket in sewer 252 

Polishing iron 468 

Polishing lead pipes 474 

Polygons, area, etc 492 



520 INDEX 

PAGE 

Porcelain fixtures, to clean 469 

Position of globe valves 383 

Pounds of water in pipes 247 

Power of lever 456 

Power of pulley 456 

Power of transmitting heat of substances 137 

Pressure in gas pipes 305 

Pressure in pneumatic tanks .... 236 

Pressure of systems 25 

Pressure of water 29, 220 

Pressure of water at various depths 243 

Pressure of water in tanks 244 

Pressure of water, to find 244 

Pressures, various 305 

Prevention of rust 464 

Preventing lead from sticking 461 

Private sewer, meaning of 398 

Privy seats, height of 457 

Properties of lead 115 

Properties of tin 116 

Proportioning gas pipes 329 

Pulley, finding diameter 453 

Pulley, power of 456 

Pump cylinder, to find diameter 245 

Pure air 55 

Pure water 55 

Putty for castings 457 

Q. 

Quality of brass tubing 168 

Quantity of water elevated, to find 245 

R. 

Radiation, value of 29 

Radiating surface of pipe 31 

Radiator: 

connections 67 

dimensions of 134 

heating surface of 126 

heating surface of pipe 131 

special fitting for 69 

tapping of 122, 137 

Rating of boilers 60 

Reading electric meter Ill 

Reaming pipes 70 

Refining solder 459 

Registers, size of 149 

Regulating duct 5 

Regulating gas stoves 106 

Reinforcing rib 12 

Relative value of heating surface ; 120 



INDEX 521 

PAGE 

Relative weights of metals 188 

Removing grease from hands 457 

Removing old gaskets 370 

Removing paint from window glass 452 

Repairing cement 463 

Resistance in bends of water pipe 223 

Resistance of friction 244 

Returns, size of 70 

Revolutions of pumps 217 

Riser shoe , . . 8 

Rivets, number per pound 197, 293 

Riveted pipe lines, where used „ : , . 183 

Rods, weight of brass and copper 192 

Roofing specifications 275 

Roof coverings, weight of 204 

Roof flange for vent pipes 338 

Roofs, angles of 204 

Roofs, pitch of 453 

Roof, to put on good 271 

Rooms, cubical contents of 138 

Rosin spreader 281 

Round steel rods, weight of 211 

Rubber matting, thickness and weight of 182 

Rules for gas fitting 324 

Rules for tin roofing 271 

Rules relative to circle 491 

Russia iron, weight, etc 302 

Rust joint, to make 467 

Rust joints, where used 389 

Rust spots, removing from marble 471 

Rust, to remove 467 



Saturated steam 40 

Scribing off tin projection 279 

Seal on return main 16 

Selecting size of boiler 79 

Service pipe, size of - 308 

Setting urinals 474 

Sewer cleaner 376 

Sewer pipe fittings 256 

Sewers: 

capacity of 259 

cement for joints in 255 

cleaning 257 

discharge of 260 

excavation for = 250 

fall of 257 

fittings for 256 

inclination of 250 

joints in 253 



622 INDEX 



Sewers: — continued page 

mode of laying 251 

pocket in 252 

testing 255 

velocity of water in 259 

Shaving for wipe joints 158 

Sheet iron and steel, weight of 294 

Sheet lead, weight of 196, 199 

Sheet metal gauge 285 

Sheet tin, weight of 298 

Shingles, paint for 454 

Shovel, preventing clay sticking to 465 

Sinks, height of 457 

Sinks, size of 174 

Siphonage of boilers 472 

Siphon, height will lift 465 

Siphon on steam gauge 380 

Size of: 

bath tubs 457 

bells 292 

boxes 173 

cast-iron fittings 358 

cast-iron pipe 316 

chimney flues 94 

conductor pipes 173 

drains 163 

excavations 261 

expansion tanks 173 

flanged cast-iron pipe 319 

flue linings 194 

galvanized boilers 190 

gas meter connections 304 

gas service pipes 308 

gas supply pipes 305 

hot air stacks 148 

hot water mains 45 

liquid measures 174 

lead pipe 186 

lead traps and bends 189 

lead wire 194 

malleable fittings 77 

marble slabs 155 

pipe bends 72 

pipes for hydraulic rams 105 

radiators 134 

registers 149 

rooms 138 

sinks 174 

soil pipes 337 

standard pipe flanges 167 

steam mains 45 



INDEX 523 



PAGE 
171 



Size of: — continued 

tanks 

tinners' nails 302 

tinners' rivets 292 

tool bags • 181 

tubular boilers 57 

valve flanges I64 

vent pipes 333 

vitrified sewer pipe 191 

waste pipes 337 

watering tanks 175 

wrought-iron pipe 311 

Skylight glass, weight of 166 

Slinging a pipe 366 

Smoke test 342 

Soil pipes 336 

Soil pipe fittings, names of 344 

Soil pipe fittings, weight, etc 199 

Soil pipe, meaning of 398 

Soil, to make plumbers' 465 

Solder: 

composition of '. 283 

essentials of good 458 

fluid 459, 460 

for aluminum 459 

for different metals 282 

fusing point of 159, 283 

paste 461 

refining old ., 459 

required for wipe joints 158 

required for hub joints 159 

wiping, to make 458 

Soldering ball float 470 

Soldering cast iron 460 

Soldering fluid 459, 460 

Sodering lead to brass 474 

Soldering paste 461 

Solders to use 282 

Solvent for rust 468 

Space occupied by fuels 188 

Spacing of lead pipe tacks 159 

Spanish land measure 482 

Special riser connections 68 

Specifications for: 



gas piping. 



447 



plumbing 399, 428 

tin roofing 275 

Specific gravity of steam 41 

Splitting a belt • 366 

Square measure 475 

Square steel rods, weight of 211 



524 INDEX 

PAGE 

Standing seams, method of making 278 

Standing seam roofing, amount required 286 

Stains, removing from granite 451 

Stair plates, weight, etc 293 

Starting stoppage in waste 365 

Steam: 

dry 40 

fitters' cement 463 

gauge siphon 380 

heating 13 

heating by 34 

latent heat of 41 

piston, to find area of 245 

pressure of 47 

saturated 40 

specific gravity of 41 

specific heat of 41 

table 47 

weight of 47 

wet 40 

Steam heating: • 

direct -indirect 24 

dry return in 16 

false water line in 17 

high pressure of 13 

indirect 22 

low pressure of 13 

one pipe circuit system of 14 

one pipe relief system of 15 

one pipe single system of 14 

piping for 63 

radiating surface for 26 

data for 26 

size of mains for 45 

two pipe system of 17 

vacuum system of 18 

Steel pipe, to distinguish 51 

Stilson wrench, use of 389 

Stoppage in waste, to start 365 

Stopping gas pipe 379 

Stove cleaning liquid 470 

Stove pipe, to crimp 367 

Street service connection 374 

Strength of: 

brass tubes 176 

bolts 177 

cast-iron pipe 184 

copper tubes 176 

lead pipe 186 

lead traps 189 

riveted pipe 180 

spiral riveted pipe 181 



INDEX 525 

Substances, weight of 200 

Suction, height will lift water 465 

Suction of pump 23s 

Sulphur joints in sewer pipe 254 

Superheated steam 40 

Supply of gas through pipes 309 

Supporting heavy pipe 379 

Supports for soil pipes 34O 

Surveyors' long measure 479 

Surveyors' square measure 473 

T. 

Tables of radiation 122 

Table of ratios 25 

Tanks, gallons in square 17^ 173 

Tanks, gallons in round 172 

Tar, removing from hands 472 

Tapping of radiators 137 

Tapping of radiators, height of 122 

Temperature, effects of 153 

Temperature of flames 154 

Temperatures, estimating 169 

Tensile strain on tanks 244 

Terms used in plumbing rules 398 

Testing: 

gas pipes 304 

heating system 62 

machines 342 

sewers 255 

soil and vent pipes 341 

with peppermint 354 

with smoke 354 

Thawing frozen pipes 466 

Thawing pipes with electricity 109 

Thermometric scales 44 

Thickness of cast-iron pipe 186 

Thickness of pipe coverings 59 

Thigh, broken 498 

Threads, to build up 472 

Time measure 479 

Tinners' nails, size, etc 302 

Tinners' rivets, dimensions of 292 

Tinning soldering iron 464 

Tin plate 282 

Tin plates, weight per box 289 

Tin roofing: 

cost of 287 

instructions for laying 272 

joints in 268 

number of sheets required for 284 



526 INDEX 



Tin roofing: — continued page 

painting 270 

seams in 278 

specifications for 275 

weight of 289, 290 

Toilet paper reel 471 

Tool bags, size of , 181 

Tools, to mark 456 

Tracings, to clean 457 

Trade terms of pipe 320 

Troy measure 479 

Tubing, weight of brass and copper 190 

Tubing, quality of brass 168 

Two pipe system 17 



U. 

Underground pipe, weight of 318 

Universal soldering fluid 459 

Urinals, setting 474 

United States standard gauge 285 

United States land measure 482 

Use of Stilson or monkey wrench 389 

Useful information regarding water 244 

Using hot water radiators for steam 473 



V. 

Vacuum system of heating 18 

Value of hot water radiation 25 

Value of radiation . 29 

Value of steam radiation 26 

Valves, abuse of 384 

Valve parts, names of 363 

Various materials, weight of 200 

Varnish for pattern work 454 

Velocity of: 

air due to pressure 152 

water, to compute 249 

water in sewers 259 

water, to determine 244 

water to develop horse power 222 

Ventilators 282 

Vent pipes 336 

Vent pipe, meaning of 398 

Vise used as drill press 368 

Vitrified sewer pipe, size, weight, etc 195 

Volume of water discharged, to compute 241 



INDEX 527 

W. 

PAGE 

Wage table 50.5 

Wagner riser shoe 8 

Warm air heating : 

baffle plates in 6 

capacity of pipes for 150 

cold air duct 3 

dimensions of registers for , 149 

location of furnace 1 

regulating duct in 5 

shoes of pipes for 8 

size of pipes for 7 

size of safety pipes for 148 

Wash stands, height of 457 

Wash tubs, height of 457 

Waste pipe, meaning of 398 

Waste pipe, to hold 362 

Water: 

amount in pneumatic tanks 236 

back, to clean 464 

bag for stopping gas pipe 379 

boiler below water-back 474 

expansion in freezing 243 

flow through nozzles 224, 244 

flow through pipes 230 

gallons delivered from nozzles 246 

gauge, to clean 88 

information regarding 244 

in sewers 251, 259 

loss of head by friction 232 

measurement of flow of 217 

meter, to read ' 112 

meter, to test 113 

pressure of 220 

pressure of at different depths . > 243 

required for engines 121 

spreader 281 

tank gauge 364 

velocity of 222 

weight in pipes 235, 247 

weight of 238 

weight of cubic foot 243 

weight of different gallons 242, 248 

Watering tanks, size of 175 

Weak point of roofing seams 277 

Weather boarding, weight of metal 285 

Weight of: 

aluminum sheets 297 

asbestos mill board •' 297 

asbestos pipe covering 59 

bells 292 



528 INDEX 



Weight of: — continued page 

black sheets 286, 289 

block tin pipe 187 

bolts 198 

brass rods 192 

brass sheets 295 

brass tubing 190 

bushel 483 

cast-iron fittings 317 

cast-iron pipe 316 

cast-iron soil pipe fittings 199 

copper rods 192 

copper sheets 295 

copper tubing 190 

corrugated sheet metal 291 

couplings 314 

escutcheon pins . 293 

flanged cast-iron pipe 319 

flat steel 205 

galvanized sheets 286 

hot air pipe 195 

lead for hub joints 159 

lead pipe 186 

lead traps 189 

lead wire 194 

liquids 188 

lumber 292 

materials 203 

metal shingles 302 

metals, relative 188 

mineral wool 196 

nuts 198 

planished iron 299 

plate glass 297 

riveted hydraulic pipe 179 

rivets 197, 293 

roof coverings 204 

rubber matting 182 

russia iron 302 

sheet lead 196, 199 

sheet metal 285 

sheet metal siding 284 

sheet tin 298 

skylight glass 166 

soil pipe 199 

solder for joints 158 

stair plates 293 

steel bars 211 

steel sheeting 294 

substances 200 

tin per box 289 



INDEX 529 

Weight of: — continued page 

tin plate 290 

terra cotta flue linings 194 

underground pipe 318 

vitrified sewer pipe 191 

water 238, 242 

water in pipes 247 

water per gallon 248 

wrought iron pipe 311 

wrought iron sheets 300 

zinc rods > 188 

zinc sheet 298 

Wet steam 40 

Where to use rust joints 389 

White metal, formula for 466 

Whitewash 468 

Why water leaves a boiler 90 

Weir-dam measurement 217 

Wine measure 477 

Wipe joints, length of 158 

Wiping solder 458 

Wood rims on bath tubs 462 

Wrought iron, weight, etc., of sheets 300 

Z. 

Zinc: 

rods, weight of 188 

to clean 465 

weight of sheet 298 



AUG 15 1908 









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